Buddhism, also known as Buddha Dharma, “the teachings of the awakened one”, is a dharmic non-theistic religion, a way of life, a practical philosophy, and a life-enhancing system of applied psychology. Buddhism focuses on the teachings of Gautama Buddha or the Buddha, who was born in Lumbini in what is now Nepal around the fifth century BC. Buddhism spread throughout the Indian subcontinent in the five centuries following the Buddha’s passing, and thence into Central, Southeast, and East Asia over the next two millennia. 

Buddhism continues to attract followers worldwide and is considered a major world religion. According to one source, “World estimates for Buddhists vary between 230 and 500 million, with most around 350 million.” However, estimates are uncertain for several countries. The monks’ order Sangha, which began during the lifetime of the Buddha in India, is amongst the oldest organizations on earth. In the past several decades, it received much attention from the other part of the world, becoming the fastest growing religion in the world. 
Gautama Siddharta, Sakyamuni, the Buddha
Founder of Buddhism, also known as the Tathagata, in Sanskrit “he who has come thus”, Bhagavat, in Sanskrit “the Lord, and Sugata, in Sanskrit “well-gone”. Probably 563-483 B.C. There are different opinions regarding time of his birth and death. 
Gautama Siddharta was born a prince to the Shakya clan, at the beginning of the Magadha period (546–324 B.C.), in the plains of Lumbini, today’s Southern Nepal. He is also venerated as the Sakyamuni (Sanskrit, literally “The sage of the Shakya clan”). 
It was predicted at his birth that he would become either a great ruler or a great teacher; therefore his father, King Suddhodana, who was the ruler of Kapilavastu (later to be incorporated into the state of Magadha) and wished Siddhartha to succeed him, tried at all costs to shelter him from anything that might seduce him into religion. However, Siddharta encountered and understood reality of the world with conclusion that life was suffering and sorrow. At 29 years old, Siddharta renounced his secular luxury life as well as his wife Yashodhara and his son Rahula to seek the truth of life, becoming a wandering ascetic. 
Siddhartha first studied yogic meditation under the teachers Alara Kalama and Udraka Ramaputra, and soon realized that those could not lead to salvation of his mind. He then undertook fasting in extreme austerities. Six years later he stopped austerity to pursue the middle way. Seating under a pipal tree at Bodh Gaya, he swore not to stir until attain enlightenment. On the night of full moon, after overcoming the attacks and temptations of Mara, “the evil one,” he reached enlightenment, becoming a Buddha at the age of 35. He was then known as Gautama Buddha, or simply “The Buddha”, which means “the enlightened one”. 
Leaving the Bodhi Tree or Tree of Enlightenment, he proceeded to the Deer Park at Sarnath, north of Benares (Varanasi), India, where he preached his first sermon to five ascetics following him as he practiced austerities. They became his first disciples. The first sermon, known as “the setting into motion of the wheel of the dharma,” contained the basic doctrines of the “four noble truths” and the “eightfold path.” 
For the rest of his life he traveled and taught in the Gangetic plain, instructing disciples and giving teaching to all who came to him, regardless of caste or religion. He spent much of his time in monasteries donated to the sangha or community of monks, by wealthy lay devotees. Tradition says that he died at the age of 80, attaining Nirvana. He appointed no successor but on his deathbed told his disciples to maintain the sangha and achieve their own liberation by adhering to his teaching. His relics have become the most sacred in Buddhism since. 
Basic Concepts and Doctrines of Buddhism
Numerous distinct groups or schools have developed since the passing of the Buddha, with diverse teachings that vary widely in practice, philosophical emphasis, and culture. However, there are certain doctrines which are common to the majority of schools and traditions in Buddhism. 
Middle way
The primary guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the Middle Way which was discovered by the Buddha prior to his enlightenment. The Middle Way or Middle Path is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification. 
More specifically, in Theravada Buddhism, the Middle Way crystallizes the Buddha’s Nirvana-bound path of moderation away from the extremes of sensual indulgence and self-mortification and toward the practice of wisdom, morality and mental cultivation. In Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, the Middle Way refers to transcendental ways of approaching seemingly antithetical claims about reality. 
Three marks of existence 
Everything in the physical world as well as in the phenomenology of psychology is marked by three characteristics, known as the three characteristics of existence, three signs of being or Dharma Seals. 
• Dukkha (Sanskrit duhkha), or dissatisfaction. Nothing in the physical world or even the psychological realm can bring lasting deep satisfaction.
• Anicca (Sanskrit anitya), or impermanence. This refers not only to the fact that all conditioned things eventually cease to exist, but also that all conditioned things are in a constant state of flux. 
• Anatta (Sanskrit anatman), impersonality, or non-Self. The human personality, “soul” or self, is a conventional appellation applied to the assembly of physical and psychological components, each individually subject to constant flux; there is no central core or essence; this is somewhat similar to a bundle theory of mind or soul. 
There is often a fourth Dharma Seal mentioned: 
• Nirvana is peace. Nirvana is the “other shore” from Samsara. 
By bringing the three (or four) seals into moment-to-moment experience through concentrated awareness, it is said to achieve Wisdom – the third of the three higher trainings – the way out of Samsara. In this way, it can be identified that, according to Sutra, the recipe or formula for leaving Samsara is achieved by a deep-rooted change to people’s weltanschauung. 
Dharma
Dharma (Sanskrit) or Dhamma (Pali) in Buddhism has two primary meanings: the teachings of the Buddha, or the universal and singular law of nature. Other schools of thought sometimes call it Buddha-dharma. Buddha-dharma itself means “Path of Awakening”. 
The status of dharma is regarded variably by different traditions. Some regard it as an ultimate and transcendent truth which is utterly beyond worldly things, somewhat like the Christian logos. Others, who regard the Buddha as simply an enlightened human being, see dharma as the 84,000 different teachings that the Buddha gave to different people on need. 
“Dharma” usually refers inclusively not just to the sayings of the Buddha but to the later traditions of interpretation and addition that the various schools of Buddhism have developed to help explain and expand upon the Buddha’s teachings. For others still, they see the dharma as referring to the “truth” or ultimate reality or “the way things are”. 
Refuge in the Three Jewels 
Acknowledging the Four Noble Truths and making the first step in the Noble Eightfold Path requires taking refuge, as the foundation of one’s religious practice, in Buddhism’s Three Jewels. The Buddha who chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow/pledge. This is considered the ultimate expression of compassion. 
The Three Jewels are: 
• The Buddha. This is a title for those who attained enlightenment similar to the Buddha and helped others to attain it. The Buddha could also be represented as the wisdom that understands Dharma, and in this regard the Buddha represents the perfect wisdom that sees reality in its true form. 
• The Dharma: The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma also means the law of nature. 
• The Sangha: Literally meaning “group” or “congregation”, it may refer to one of two Buddhist communities: of monastics (bhikkus 
and bhikkunis), or of people who has begun their way to enlightenment. It also consists of lay people, the caretakers of the monks, those who have accepted parts of the monastic code but who have not been ordained as monks or nuns. 
The Four Noble Truths 
This is the most fundamental statement concerning doctrines of Buddhism, formulated by the Buddha in his first sermon. The Noble Truths are: 
1. Existence is suffering; 
2. Desire or thirst is its cause; 
3. The cessation of suffering is possible; 
4. The way to accomplish this is to follow the Eightfold Path. 
Though differently interpreted, these four truths are recognized by virtually all Buddhist schools. 
The Noble Eightfold Path 
It is the way to cease suffering, as stated by the fourth in Four Noble Truths. In order to fully understand the noble truths and investigate whether they were in fact true, the Buddha recommended the following eight paths, to explain briefly: 
1. Right understanding: to realize the Four Noble Truths; 
2. Right values: commit oneself to mental and ethical growth in moderation; 
3. Right speech: to speak in a harmless, unexaggerated, truthful way; 
4. Right action: to act properly by adherence to Precepts such as the famous Five Precepts which is “no killing, no stealing, no sexual misconduct, no lying, and no intoxicating”; 
5. Right livelihood: to take job or career no harm in any way oneself or others, directly or indirectly; 
6. Right endeavor: to keep a mind free of thoughts which might impair ability to pursue others elements of the Noble Eightfold Path; 
7. Right mindfulness: to possess clear consciousness and mental ability to see things in their nature; 
8. Right concentration: to practice meditation properly. 
Also, the Noble Eightfold Path can be subdivided into three categories: 
Wisdom: including right understanding and right values; 
Ethical conduct: including right speech, right action, and right livelihood; 
Mental discipline: including right effort and right mindfulness. 
Karma
Karma means “action” or “doing”; whatever one does, says or thinks is a karma. In Buddhism, the term karma is referred specifically to actions which spring from mental intent or obsessions and would bear fruit or result either within the present life or in the context of a future rebirth. Karma is the engine which drives the wheel of Samsara. 
Karma is used as an ethical principle rather than a cosmological explanation for the world. Buddhists believe that actions determine future and all actions have their own consequences. Actions really happen, not illusions. One must be responsible for its own behavior. Every behavior has its results. 
The emphasis of karma in Buddhism is on cause, not on effect. In Buddhism, the term karma is often used to refer only to Samsara karma, as indicated by the twelve nidanas of dependent origination. 
Because of the inevitability of consequence, Karma entails the notion of Buddhist rebirth. 
Samsara
Samsara, a Sanskrit and Pali term for “continuous movement” or “continuous flowing”, refers in Buddhism to the concept of a cycle of birth and consequent decay and death, a process that all beings in the universe participate in and can only be escaped through enlightenment. Samsara is associated with suffering and is generally considered the antithesis of nirvava or nibbana. 
Schools of Buddhism have their own specific interpretations about Samsara, sometimes quite different. 
Nirvana
A Sanskrit word from India that literally means extinction and/or extinguishing, it is a mode of being that is free from mind-contaminants such as lust, anger or craving. It is thus a state of great inner peace and contentment – the end of suffering, or Dukkha. The Buddha in the Dhammapada says of Nirvana that it is “the highest happiness.” This is not the transitory, sense-based happiness of everyday life, but rather an enduring, transcendental happiness integral to the calmness attained through enlightenment.
Tripitaka
The formal term for Buddhist canon of scriptures. Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on them. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canon of scripture is known in Sanskrit as the Tripitaka and in Pali as the Tipitaka. These terms literally mean “three baskets” and refer to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:
The Vinaya Pitaka, code of ethics of early sangha. According to the scriptural account, these were invented on a day-to-day basis as the Buddha encountered various behavior problems with the monks. 
The Sutra Pitaka, consisting primarily of accounts of the Buddha’s teachings. It has numerous subdivisions – more than 10,000 sutras. 
The Abhidharma Pitaka is applied to different collections in different versions of the Tripitaka, sometimes classical commentaries or theories by following Buddhist monks and writers. 
Tripitaka in Mahayana school is a broader concept, consisting of more Buddhist works than in Theravada. 
Buddhism Symbols
The auspicious symbols of Buddhism are: conch shell, lotus, wheel, parasol or umbrella, and the Endless Knot. 
Primary Schools of Buddhism 
Buddhist schools are usually divided into two main branches: Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism. Vajrayana is sometimes named as a third, but is more commonly considered a form of Mahayana Buddhism. 
Another way of categorizing Buddhist schools follows the major languages of the extant Buddhist canons, which exist in Pali, Tibetan (also found in Mongolian translation) and Chinese collections, along with some texts that still exist in Sanskrit and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. This is a useful division for practical purposes, but does not necessarily correspond to philosophical or doctrinal divisions. 
Almost all Buddhist branches hold following common points:
• All accept the Buddha as their teacher. 
• All accept the Middle Way, Dependent origination, the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. 
• All accept that both the members of the laity and of the Sangha can pursue the path toward enlightenment (bodhi). 
• All accept two types of Buddha and consider Buddhahood to be the highest attainment. 
Theravada 
Theravada is Pali for “the Doctrine of the Elders”. Theravada teaches one to encourage wholesome states of mind, avoid unwholesome states of mind, and train in meditation. The ultimate aim of practice of Theravada is to attain freedom from suffering. Theravada holds that suffering is caused by mental defilements like greed, aversion and delusion, while freedom can be attained though taking methods like the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. 
The Theravada school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the Pali Canon and its commentaries. The Sutta collections and Vinaya texts of the Pali Canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the Tripitaka) are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism. 
Theravada is the only surviving representative of the historical early Buddhist schools. It is primarily practiced today in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as small portions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Singapore, with growing influences in Europe and America. 
Mahayana 

Mahayana is an inclusive faith characterized by the adoption of additional texts, seen as transcending the traditional Pali canon, and a shift in the understanding of Buddhism. It goes beyond the traditional Theravada ideal of the release from suffering and personal enlightenment of the arhats, to elevate the Buddha to a God-like status, and to create a pantheon of quasi-divine Bodhisattvas devoting themselves to personal excellence, ultimate knowledge and the salvation of humanity. In Mahayana, the Buddha became an idealized man-god and the Bodhisattva was the universal ideal of excellence. 

The Mahayana branch emphasizes infinite, universal compassion or the selfless, ultra-altruistic quest of the Bodhisattva to attain the “Awakened Mind” of Buddhahood so as to have the fullest possible knowledge of how most effectively to lead all sentient beings into Nirvana. Emphasis is also often placed on the notions of Emptiness, perfected spiritual insight and Buddha-nature (the deathless Buddhist Essence inherent in all beings and creatures). The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and gives expression to a form of mentalist pantheism or panentheism. 
In addition to the Tripitaka scriptures, which Mahayana considered valid but provisional or basic, Mahayana schools recognize all or part of a genre of Mahayana scriptures. Some of these sutras became for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself. Mahayana Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative. 
Native Mahayana Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea and most of Vietnam. Two popular schools of Mahayana today are Chan/Zen and Pure Land. 
Vajrayana 
The Vajrayana or “Diamond Vehicle” (also referred to as Mantrayana, Tantrayana, Tantric Buddhism, or esoteric Buddhism. Yana means “vehicle”.) shares the basic concepts of Mahayana, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. Vajrayana Buddhism exists today in the form of two major sub-schools: Tibetan Buddhism and Shingon Buddhism. 
One component of the Vajrayana is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In addition to the Theravada and Mahayana scriptures, Vajrayana Buddhists recognize a large body of texts that include the Buddhist Tantras. Native Vajrayana is practiced today mainly in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, Kalmykia, Siberia, areas of India, and – in the Shingon and Tendai schools – in China and Japan. 
History of Buddhism 
The History of Buddhism spans from the 6th century BC to the present, starting with the birth of the Buddha Gautama Siddhartha, which makes it one of the oldest religions practiced today. Throughout this period, the religion evolved as it encountered various countries and cultures, adding to its original Indian foundation Hellenistic as well as Central Asian, East Asian, and Southeast Asian cultural elements. In the process, its geographical extent became considerable so as to affect at one time or another most of the Asian continent. The history of Buddhism is also characterized by the development of numerous movements and schisms, foremost among them the Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions, punctuated by contrasting periods of expansion and retreat. 
Early Buddhism 
Before the royal sponsorship of Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BC, Buddhism seems to have remained a relatively minor phenomenon, and the historicity of its formative events is poorly established. Two formative councils are supposed to have happened, although present knowledge of them is based on much later accounts. The councils tend to explain the formalization of the Buddhist doctrine, and the various subsequent schisms inside the Buddhist movement. 
1st Buddhist Council, 5th century BC  
The first Buddhist council was held soon after the death of the Buddha under the patronage of king Ajatasatru of the Magadha Empire, and presided by a monk named Mahakasyapa, at Rajagriha (today’s Rajgir). The objective of the council was to record the Buddha’s sayings (sutra) and codify monastic rules (vinaya). Ananda, one of the Buddha’s main disciples and his cousin, was called upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and Upali, another disciple, recited the rules of the vinaya. These became the basis of the Pali Canon, which has been the orthodox text of reference throughout the history of Buddhism. 
2nd Buddhist council, 383 BC 
As the Sangha gradually grew over the next century, a dispute arose regarding ten points of discipline. A Second Buddhist Council (traditionally believed to have taken place 100 years after the Buddha’s death) was held to resolve the points at dispute. 
The second council was convened by King Kalasoka and held at Vaisali, following conflicts between the traditional schools of Buddhism and a more liberal interpretational movement called the Mahasanghikas. The traditional schools considered the Buddha as a human being who reached enlightenment, which could be most easily attained by monks following the monastic rules and practicing the teaching for the sake of overcoming suffering and attaining Arahantship. The secessionist Mahasangikas, however, tended to consider this approach too individualistic and selfish. They considered the objective of becoming an arhat insufficient, and instead proposed that the only true goal was to reach full buddhahood, in a sense opening the way to future Mahayana thought. They became proponents of more relaxed monastic rules, which could appeal to a large majority of monastic and lay people (hence their name the “great” or “majority” assembly). That could probably be the earliest rudiment of Mahayana. 
The council ended with the rejection of the Mahasanghikas. They left the council and maintained themselves for several centuries in northwestern India and Central Asia according to Kharoshti inscriptions found near the Oxus and dated c. 1st century AD. 
At some period after the Second Council however, the Sangha began to break into separate factions. The various accounts differ as to when the actual schisms occurred: according to the Dipavamsa of the Pali tradition, they started immediately after the Second Council; the Sarvastivada tradition of Vasumitra says it was in the time of Asoka; and the Mahasanghika tradition places it much later, nearly 100 BC.   
Ashokan proselytism (261 BC) 
Ashokan porselytism is one of most important events during the whole history of Buddhism. The Mauryan emperor Ashoka the Great (273–232 BC) converted to Buddhism after his bloody conquest of the territory of Kalinga (today’s Orissa) in eastern India. Regretful of the horrors brought by the conflict, the king decided to renounce violence, and propagate the faith by building stupas and pillars urging for the respect of all animal life, and encouraging people to follow the Dharma. He also built roads, hospitals, resthouses, universities and irrigation systems around the country. He treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics or caste. 
This period marks the first spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the plates and pillars left by Ashoka (the Edicts of Ashoka), emissaries were sent to various countries in order to spread Buddhism, as far as the Greek kingdoms in the West, in particular the neighboring Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and possibly even farther to the Mediterranean. 
3rd Buddhist council (250 BC) 
King Ashoka convened the third Buddhist council around 250 BC at Pataliputra (today’s Patna). It was held by the monk Moggaliputta. The objective of the council was to reconcile the different schools of Buddhism, to purify the Buddhist movement, particularly from opportunistic factions which had been attracted by the royal patronage, and to organize the dispatch of Buddhist missionaries throughout the known world. 
The Pali canon (Tipitaka, or Tripitaka in Sanskrit, literally the “Three Baskets”), which comprises the texts of reference of traditional Buddhism and is considered to be directly transmitted from the Buddha, was formalized at that time. It consists of the doctrine (the Sutra Pitaka), the monastic discipline (Vinaya Pitaka) and an additional new body of subtle philosophy (the Abhidharma Pitaka). 
The efforts of Ashoka to purify the Buddhist faith also had the effect of segregating against other emerging movements. In particular, after 250 BC, the Sarvastivadin (who had been rejected by the 3rd council, according to the Theravada tradition) and the Dharmaguptaka schools became quite influential in northwestern India and Central Asia, up to the time of the Kushan Empire in the first centuries of the common era. The Dharmaguptakas were characterized by a belief that Buddha was separate, and above, the rest of the Buddhist community. The Sarvastivadin believed that past, present, and future are all simultaneous. 
The Asokan edicts, our only contemporary sources, state that “the Sangha has been made unified”. This apparently refers to a dispute such as that in the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputta. This concerns the expulsion of non-Buddhist heretics from the Sangha, and does not speak of a schism. These schisms occurred within the traditions of Early Buddhism, at a time when the Mahayana movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school. 
Emergence of Theravada School
The third council also saw formation of the sangha of Vibhajjavada (“school of analytical discourse”) out of various schools of the Sthaviravāda lineage. Vibhajjavadins claim that the first step to insight has to be achieved by the aspirant’s experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. This school gradually declined on the Indian subcontinent, but its branch in Sri Lanka and South East Asia continues to survive; this branch of the school is now known as Theravada. The Theravada school claims that the Sarvastivada and the Dharmaguptaka schools were rejected by the council, although according to other sources the Dharmaguptaka school is classified as one of the Vibhajyavadin schools. However, these schools became influential in northwestern India and Central Asia and, since their teaching is found among the scriptures preserved by the Mahayana schools, they may have had some formative influence on the Mahayana. The Sarvastivadins have not preserved an independent tradition about the Third Council. 
It was long believed in Theravada tradition that the Pali language is equivalent to Magadhi, the eastern dialect of the kingdom of Magadha spoken by the Buddha. However, linguistic comparisons of the Edicts of Aśoka and the language of the Pali canon show strong differences. 
Hellenistic world
Some of the Edicts of Ashoka inscriptions describe the efforts made by Ashoka to propagate the Buddhist faith throughout the Hellenistic world, which at that time had already been at the peak of its civilization and formed an uninterrupted continuum from the borders of India to Greece. The Edicts indicate a clear understanding of the political organization in Hellenistic territories. The names and location of the main Greek monarchs of the time are identified, and they are claimed as recipients of Buddhist proselytism: Antiochus II Theos of the Seleucid Kingdom (261–246 BC), Ptolemy II Philadelphos of Egypt (285–247 BC), Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia (276–239 BC), Magas of Cyrene (288–258 BC), and Alexander II of Epirus (272–255 BC). 
“The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (5,400-9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka).” (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika). 
Furthermore, according to Pali sources, some of Ashoka’s emissaries were Greek Buddhist monks, indicating close religious exchanges between the two cultures. Ashoka also issued Edicts in the Greek language as well as in Aramaic. One of the edicts, found in Kandahar, advocates the adoption of “Piety” (using the Greek term Eusebeia for Dharma) to the Greek community.  
It is not clear how much these interactions may have been influential, but some authors have commented that some level of syncretism between Hellenist thought and Buddhism may have started in Hellenic lands at that time. They have pointed to the presence of Buddhist communities in the Hellenistic world around that period, in particular in Alexandria (mentioned by Clement of Alexandria), and to the pre-Christian monastic order of the Therapeutae (possibly a deformation of the Pali word “Theravada”), who may have “almost entirely drawn (its) inspiration from the teaching and practices of Buddhist asceticism”. 
Buddhist gravestones from the Ptolemaic period have also been found in Alexandria, decorated with depictions of the Dharma wheel. Commenting on the presence of Buddhists in Alexandria, some scholars have even pointed out that “it was later in this very place that some of the most active centers of Christianity were established”. 
In the 2nd century, the Christian dogmatist Clement of Alexandria recognized Bactrian Buddhists (Sramanas) and Indian Gymnosophists for their influence on Greek thought. 
The Two Fourth Councils 
A Fourth Council is said to have been convened in the reign of the Kushan emperor Kanishka, around 100 A.D. at Jalandhar or in Kashmir. Because Therevada believed that the The Fourth Council of Kashmir introduced unauthentic sutras as authentic, and did not attend this Fourth Council to prevent it, Theravada Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of this council, and sometimes call it “the council of heretical monks”. Theravada Buddhism had its own Fourth Council in Sri Lanka. Therefore there are two Fourth Councils: one in Sri Lanka (Theravada), and one in Kashmir (Sarvastivadin). 
It is said that for the Fourth Council of Kashmir, Kanishka gathered 500 monks headed by Vasumitra, partly, it seems, to compile extensive commentaries on the Abhidharma, although it is possible that some editorial work was carried out upon the existing canon itself. The main fruit of this Council was the reaction of Agamas and compilation of the vast commentary known as the Maha-Vibhasha (“Great Exegesis”), an extensive compendium and reference work on a portion of the Sarvastivadin Abhidharma. 
Scholars believe that it was also around this time that a significant change was made in the language of the Sarvastivadin canon, by converting an earlier Prakrit version into Sanskrit. Although this change was probably effected without significant loss of integrity to the canon, this event was of particular significance since Sanskrit was the official holy language of Brahmanism in India, and was also being used by other thinkers (regardless of their specific religious or philosophical allegiance), thus enabling a far wider audience to gain access to Buddhist ideas and practices. For this reason, all major (Mahayana) Buddhist scholars in India thereafter wrote their commentaries and treatises in Sanskrit. Therevada however never switched to Sanskrit, partly because Buddha explicitly forbade translation of his discourses into Sanskrit because it was an elitist religious language (like Latin was in Europe before) in ancient India. He wanted his monks to use a local language instead, a language which could be understood by all. Over time however, the language of the Theravadin scriptures (Pali) became a scholarly or elitist language as well. 
Asian expansion 
In the areas east of the Indian subcontinent (today’s Burma), Indian culture strongly influenced the Mons. The Mons are said to have been converted to Buddhism around 200 BC under the proselytizing of the Indian king Ashoka, before the fission between Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism. Early Mon Buddhist temples, such as Peikthano in central Burma, have been dated between the 1st and the 5th century. 
The Buddhist art of the Mons was especially influenced by the Indian art of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, and their mannerist style spread widely in Southeast Asia following the expansion of the Mon kingdom between the 5th and 8th centuries. The Theravada faith expanded in the northern parts of Southeast Asia under Mon influence, until it was progressively displaced by Mahayana Buddhism from around the 6th century. 
Sri Lanka was allegedly proselytized by Ashoka’s son Mahinda and six companions during the 2nd century BC. They converted the king Devanampiya Tissa and many of the nobility. This is when the Mahavihara monastery, a center of Sinhalese orthodoxy, was built. The Pali Canon was put in writing in Sri Lanka during the reign of king Vittagamani (about 29–17 BC), and the Theravada tradition flourished there, harboring some great commentators such as Buddhaghosa (4th–5th century). Although Mahayana Buddhism gained some influence at that time, Theravada ultimately prevailed, and Sri Lanka turned out to be the last stronghold of Theravada Buddhism, from where it would expand again to Southaast Asia from the 11th century. 
There is also a legend, not directly validated by the edicts, that Ashoka sent a missionary to the north, through the Himalayas, to Khotan in the Tarim Basin, then the land of the Tocharians, speakers of an Indo-European language. 
Rise of the Sunga (2nd–1st century B.C.) 
The Sunga Dynasty (185–73 B.C.) was established in 185 B.C., about 50 years after Ashoka’s death. After deposing King Brhadrata (the last Mauryan ruler), military commander-in-chief Pusyamitra Sunga stepped onto the throne. An orthodox Brahmin, Sunga was allegedly hostile towards Buddhists and allegedly persecuted the Buddhist faith. He is recorded as having destroyed monasteries and killed Monks: according historical researches, 84,000 Buddhist stupas which had been built by Ashoka were destroyed, and 100 gold coins were offered for the head of each Buddhist monk. A large number of Buddhist monasteries (viharas) were said to have been converted to Hindu temples, in such places as Nalanda, Bodhgaya, Sarnath, or Mathura. 
During the period, Buddhist monks deserted the Ganges valley, following either the Northern road (Uttarapatha) or the Southern road (Daksinapatha). Conversely, Buddhist artistic creation stopped in the old Magadha area, to reposition itself either in Northwest area of Gandhara and Mathura, or in the Southeast around Amaravati. Some artistic activity also occurred in central India, as in Bharhut, to which the Sungas may or may not have contributed. 
Greco-Buddhist interaction (2nd century BC-1st century AD) 
In the areas west of the Indian subcontinent, neighboring Greek kingdoms had been in place in Bactria (today’s northern Afghanistan) since the time of the conquests of Alexander the Great around 326 BC: first the Seleucids from around 323 BC, then the Greco-Bactrian kingdom from around 250 BC. 
The Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I invaded India in 180 BC as far as Pataliputra, establishing an Indo-Greek kingdom that was to last in various parts of northern India until the end of the 1st century BC. Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, and it has been suggested that their invasion of India was intended to show their support for the Mauryan Empire, and to protect the Buddhist faith from the alleged religious persecutions of the Sungas (185–73 BC). 
One of the most famous Indo-Greek kings is Menander (reigned 160–135 BC). He apparently converted to Buddhism and is presented in the Mahayana tradition as one of the great benefactors of the faith, on a par with king Ashoka or the later Kushan king Kanishka. Menander’s coins bear the mention “Savior king” in Greek and sometimes designs of the eight-spoke wheel, a traditional Buddhist symbol. Direct cultural exchange is also suggested by the dialogue of the Milinda Panha between Menander and the monk Nagasena around 160 B.C. Upon his death, the honor of sharing his remains was claimed by the cities under his rule, and they were enshrined in stupas, in a parallel with the historic Buddha. Several of Menander’s Indo-Greek successors inscribed the mention “Follower of the Dharma” in the Kharoshthi script on their coins, and depicted themselves or their divinities forming the vitarka mudra. 
The interaction between Greek and Buddhist cultures may have had some influence on the evolution of Mahayana, as the faith developed its sophisticated philosophical approach and a man-god treatment of the Buddha somewhat reminiscent of Hellenic gods. It is also around that time that the first anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha are found, often in realistic Greco-Buddhist style: “One might regard the classical influence as including the general idea of representing a man-god in this purely human form, which was of course well familiar in the West, and it is very likely that the example of westerner’s treatment of their gods was indeed an important factor in the innovation”. 
Rise of Mahayana (1st century BC–2nd century AD) 
The precise geographical origins of Mahayana are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahayana developed independently from the 1st century BC onwards, initially within several small individual communities. On one side, Mahayana was a movement of lay Buddhists focused around stupa devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stupa representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as a bodisattva were used to preach Buddhism to the masses. The Sangha, at the same time, became increasingly fragmented both in terms of Abhidharma and Vinaya practice. This led to a widening distance between the laity and Sangha. The Mahayana movement, on the other hand, was ecumenical, reflecting a wide range of influence from various sects. Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in the same Sangha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. 
The rise of Mahayana Buddhism from the 1st century BC was accompanied by complex political changes in northwestern India. The Indo-Greek kingdoms were gradually overwhelmed, and their culture assimilated by the Indo-Scythians, and then the Yuezhi, who founded the Kushan Empire from around 12 BC. 
The Kushans were supportive toward Buddhism, and a fourth Buddhist council was convened by the Kushan emperor Kanishka, around 100 at Jalandhar or in Kashmir, and is usually associated with the formal rise of Mahayana Buddhism and its secession from Theravada Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of this council, and it is sometimes called the “council of heretical monks”. 
It is said that Kanishka gathered 500 bhikkus in Kashmir, headed by Vasumitra, to edit the Tripitaka and make references and remarks. Allegedly, during the council there were all together three hundred thousand verses and over nine million statements compiled, and it took twelve years to complete. 
This council did not simply rely on the original Tripitaka in the third council. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, the Lotus Sutra, an early version of the Heart Sutra and the Amitabha Sutra were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of salvation for the masses (hence Mahayana “great vehicle”) and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattva who embody transcendent Buddha-nature who strive to achieve such goal. The new scriptures were first written in Sanskrit. From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahayana would flourish and spread from the India to Southeast Asia, and towards the north to Central Asia and then east to China where Mahayana was Sinicized and this Sinicized Mahayana would be passed on to Korea, Vietnam and finally to Japan in 538. The East Asians would go on to write more indigenous sutras and commentaries to the Mahayana Canon. The most complete Mahayana Canon today is in the Chinese language.
The new form of Buddhism was characterized by an almost God-like treatment of the Buddha, by the idea that all beings have a Buddha-nature and should aspire to Buddhahood, and by a syncretism due to the various cultural influences within northwestern India and the Kushan Empire.
The root schism during early period of Buddhism was between the Sthaviras and the Mahasaṅghikas. The fortunate survival of accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions. The Sthavira group offers two quite distinct reasons for the schism. The Dipavamsa of the Theravada accuses the Mahasaṅghikas of unauthorized corruption of the texts. On the other hand, the northern lineages, including the Sarvastivada and Puggalavada (both branches of the ancient Sthaviras) attribute the Mahasaṅghika schism to the “5 points” that erode the status of the arahant. For their part, the Mahasaṅghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to expand the Vinaya; they may also have challenged what they perceived to be excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for Arhatship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition. The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the Theravada school. 
Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an Abhidharma, a collection of philosophical commentaries on the discourse of the Buddha. Early commentaries probably existed in the time of the Buddha as simple lists. However, as time went on and Buddhism spread further, the (perceived) teachings of the Buddha were formalized in a more systematic manner in a new Pitaka: the Abhidhamma Pitaka. Some modern academics refer to it as Abhidhamma Buddhism. Interestingly, the Mahasanghika school did not have an Abhidhamma Pitaka, which agrees with their statement that they did not want to add to the Buddha’s teachings. But according to Chinese pilgrims Fa Xian (5th century) and Yuan Chwang (7th century), they had procured a copy of Abhidhamma which belonged to the Mahasanghika School. 
Buddhism spread slowly in India until the time of the Mauryan emperor Asoka the Great, who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Asoka and his descendants led to the construction of more Buddhist religious memorials (stupas) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya Empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of Afghanistan and Central Asia, beyond the Mauryas’ northwest border, and to the island of Sri Lanka south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravada Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia. 
This period marks the first spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the edicts of Asoka, emissaries were sent to various countries west of India in order to spread “Dhamma”, particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring Seleucid Empire, and possibly even farther to Hellenistic kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, a century later, to the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the Indo-Greek Kingdom, and to the development of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism.
Mahayana expansion (1st –10th century) 
From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahayana was to flourish and spread in the East from India to South-East Asia, and towards the north to Central Asia, China, Korea, and finally to Japan in 538. 
India 
After the end of the Kushans, Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the Guptas (4th-6th century). Mahayana centers of learning were established, especially at Nalanda in north-eastern India, which was to become the largest and most influential Buddhist university for many centuries, with famous teachers such as Nagarjuna. The Gupta style of Buddhist art became very influential from South-East Asia to China as the faith was spreading there. 
Indian Buddhism had weakened in the 6th century following the White Hun invasions and Mihirkulas persecution. 
Xuanzang described in his travels across India that during the 7th century of Buddhism was popular in Andhra, Dhanyakataka, and Dravida which today rougly correspond to the modern day Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. While reporting many deserted stupas in the area around modern day Nepal and the persecution of buddhists by Sanka in the Kingdom of Gouda (today’s west Bengal.), Xuanzang also complimented the patronage of Harshavardana during the same period. After Harshavardanas kingdom, the rise of many small kingdoms that lead to the rise of the Rajputs across the gangetic plains and marked the end of Buddhist ruling clans along with a sharp decline in royal patronage until a revival under the Pala Empire in the Bengal region. Here Mahayana Buddhism flourished and spread to Bhutan and Sikkim between the 8th and the 12th century before the Palas collapsed under the assault of the Hindu Sena dynasty. The Palas created many temples and a distinctive school of Buddhist art. Xuanzang noted in his travels that in various regions Buddhism was giving way to Jainism and Hinduism. By the 10thcentury, Buddhism had experienced a sharp decline beyond the Pala realms in Bengal under a resurgent Hinduism and the incorporation in Vaishnavite Hinduism of Buddha as the 9th incarnation of Vishnu. 
A milestone in the decline of Indian Buddhism in the North occurred in 1193 when Turkic Islamic raiders under Muhammad Khilji destroyed Nalanda. By the end of the 12th century, following the Islamic conquest of the Buddhist strongholds in Bihar, and the loss of political support coupled with social and caste pressures, the practice of Buddhism retreated to the Himalayan foothills in the North and Sri Lanka in the south. Additionally, the influence of Buddhism also waned due to Hinduism’s revival movements such as Advaita, the rise of the bhakti movement and the missionary work of Sufis. 
Central and Northern Asia 
Central Asia had been influenced by Buddhism probably almost since the time of the Buddha. According to a legend preserved in Pali, the language of the Theravada canon, two merchant brothers from Bactria, named Tapassu and Bhallika, visited the Buddha and became his disciples. They then returned to Bactria and built temples to the Buddha. 
Central Asia had long played the role of a meeting place between China, India and Persia. During the 2nd century BC, the expansion of the Former Han dynasty in China to the west brought them into contact with the Hellenistic civilizations of Asia, especially the Greco-Bactrian Kingdoms. Thereafter, the expansion of Buddhism to the north led to the formation of Buddhist communities and even Buddhist kingdoms in the oases of Central Asia. Some Silk Road cities consisted almost entirely of Buddhist stupas and monasteries, and it seems that one of their main objectives was to welcome and service travelers between east and west. 
The Hinayana traditions first spread among the Turkic tribes before combining with the Mahayana forms during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BC to cover modern-day Pakistan, Kashmir, Afghanistan, eastern and coastal Iran, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan. These were the ancient states of Gandhara, Bactria, Parthia and Sogdia from where it spread to China. Among the first of these Turkic tribes to adopt Buddhism was the Turki-Shahi who adopted Buddhism as early as the 3rd century BC. It was not, however, the exclusive faith of this region. There were also Zoroastrians, Hindus, Nestorian Christians, Jews, Manichaeans, and followers of shamanism, Tengrism, and other indigenous, non-organized systems of belief. 
Various Nikaya schools persisted in Central Asia and China until around the 7th century. Mahayana started to become dominant during the period, but since the faith had not developed a Nikaya approach, Sarvastivadin and Dharmaguptakas remained the Vinayas of choice in Central Asian monasteries. 
Various Buddhism kingdoms rose and prospered in both the Central Asian region and downwards into the Indian sub-continent such as Kushan Empire prior to the White Hun invasion in the 5th century where under the King Mihirkula they were heavily persecuted. 
Buddhism in Central Asia started to decline with the expansion of Islam and the destruction of many stupas in war from the 7th century. The Muslims accorded them the status of dhimmis as “people of the Book”, such as Christianity or Judaism and Al-Biruni wrote of Buddha as prophet “burxan”. 
Buddhism saw a surge during the reign of Mongols following the invasion of Genghis Khan and the establishment of the Il Khanate and the Chagatai Khanate who brought their Buddhist influence with them during the 13th century, however within 100 years the Mongols would convert to Islam and spread Islam across all the regions across central Asia. 
Parthia 
Buddhism expanded westward into Arsacid Parthia, at least to the area of Merv, in ancient Margiana, today’s territory of Turkmenistan. Soviet archeological teams have excavated in Giaur Kala, near Merv, a Buddhist chapel, a gigantic Buddha statue, as well as a monastery. 
Parthians were directly involved in the propagation of Buddhism. An Shigao (148), a Parthian prince, went to China, and is the first known translator of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. 
Tarim Basin 
The eastern part of central Asia (Chinese Turkestan, Tarim Basin, Xinjiang) has revealed extremely rich Buddhist works of art (wall paintings and reliefs in numerous caves, portable paintings on canvas, sculpture, ritual objects), displaying multiple influences from Indian and Hellenistic cultures. Serindian art is highly reminiscent of the Gandharan style, and scriptures in the Gandhari script Kharosthi have been found. 
Central Asians seem to have played a key role in the transmission of Buddhism to the East. The first translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were either Parthian (Ch: Anxi) like An Shigao or An Hsuan, Kushan of Yuezhi ethnicity like Lokaksema (178), Zhi Qian and Zhi Yao, or Sogdians like Kang Sengkai. Thirty-seven early translators of Buddhist texts are known, and the majority of them have been identified as Central Asians. 
Central Asian and East Asian Buddhist monks appear to have maintained strong exchanges until around the 10th century, as shown by frescoes from the Tarim Basin. These influences were rapidly absorbed however by the vigorous Chinese culture, and a strongly Chinese particularism develops from that point. 
China 
Buddhism probably arrived in China around the 1st century from Central Asia, although there are some traditions about a monk visiting China during Asoka’s reign, and through to the 8th century it became an extremely active center of Buddhism. 
The year 67 saw Buddhism’s official introduction to China with the coming of the two monks Moton and Chufarlan. In 68, under imperial patronage, they established the White Horse Temple, which still exists today, close to the imperial capital at Luoyang. By the end of the second century, a prosperous community had been settled at Pengcheng (modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu). 
The first known Mahayana scriptural texts are translations made into Chinese by the Kushan monk Lokaksema in Luoyang, between 178 and 189. Some of the earliest known Buddhist artifacts found in China are small statues on “money trees”, dated circa 200, in typical Gandharan style (drawing): “That the imported images accompanying the newly arrived doctrine came from Gandhara is strongly suggested by such early Gandhara characteristics on this money tree Buddha as the high ushnisha, vertical arrangement of the hair, moustache, symmetrically looped robe and parallel incisions for the folds of the arms.” 
Buddhism flourished during the beginning of the Tang Dynasty (618–907). The dynasty was initially characterized by a strong openness to foreign influences, and renewed exchanges with Indian culture due to the numerous travels of Chinese Buddhist monks to India from the 4th to the 11th century. The Tang capital of Chang’an (today’s Xi’an) became an important center for Buddhist thought. From there Buddhism spread to Korea, and Japanese embassies of Kentoshi helped gain footholds in Japan. 
However foreign influences came to be negatively perceived towards the end of Tang Dynasty. In 845, the Tang emperor Wu-Tsung outlawed all “foreign” religions including Christian Nestorianism, Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism, in order to support the indigenous Taoism. Throughout his territory, he confiscated Buddhist possessions, destroyed monasteries and temples, and executed Buddhist monks, ending Buddhism’s cultural and intellectual dominance. 
Pure Land and Chan Buddhism, nevertheless, continued to prosper for some centuries, the latter giving rise to Japanese Zen. In China, Chan flourished particularly under the Song dynasty (1127–1279), when its monasteries were great centers of culture and learning. 
Today, China boasts one of the richest collections of Buddhist arts and heritages in the world. UNESCO World Heritage Sites such as the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu province, the Longmen Grottoes near Luoyang in Henan province, the Yungang Grottoes near Datong in Shanxi province, and the Dazu Rock Carvings near Chongqing are among the most important and renowned Buddhist sculptural sites. The Leshan Giant Buddha, carved out of a hillside in the 8th century during Tang Dynasty and looking down on the confluence of three rivers, is still the largest stone Buddha statue in the world. 
Korea 
Buddhism was introduced around 372, when Chinese ambassadors visited the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo, bringing scriptures and images. Buddhism prospered in Korea, and in particular Seon (Zen) Buddhism from the 7th century onward. However, with the beginning of the Confucean Yi Dynasty of the Joseon period in 1392, Buddhism was strongly discriminated against until it was almost completely eradicated, except for a remaining Seon movement. 
Japan 
Japan discovered Buddhism in the 6th century when Korean monks traveled to the islands together with numerous scriptures and works of art. The Buddhist religion was adopted by the state in the following century. 
Being geographically at the end of the Silk Road, Japan was able to preserve many aspects of Buddhism at the very time it was disappearing in India, and being suppressed in Central Asia and China. 
From 710, numerous temples and monasteries were built in the capital city of Nara, such as the five-story pagoda and Golden Hall of the Horyuji, or the Kofuku-ji temple. Countless paintings and sculptures were made, often under governmental sponsorship. The creation of Japanese Buddhist art was especially rich between the 8th and 13th century during the periods of Nara, Heian, and Kamakura. 
From the 12th and 13th century, a further development was Zen art, following the introduction of the faith by Dogen and Eisai upon their return from China. Zen art is mainly characterized by original paintings (such as sumi-e and the Enso) and poetry (especially haikus), striving to express the true essence of the world through impressionistic and unadorned “non-dualistic” representations. The search for enlightenment “in the moment” also led to the development of other important derivative arts such as the Chanoyu tea ceremony or the Ikebana art of flower arrangement. This evolution went as far as considering almost any human activity as an art with a strong spiritual and aesthetic content, first and foremost in those activities related to combat techniques (martial arts). 
Buddhism remains very active in Japan to this day. Around 80,000 Buddhist temples are preserved and regularly restored. 
South-East Asia 
During the 1st century, the trade on the overland Silk Road tended to be restricted by the rise in the Middle-East of the Parthian empire, an unvanquished enemy of Rome, just as Romans were becoming extremely wealthy and their demand for Asian luxury was rising. This demand revived the sea connections between the Mediterranean and China, with India as the intermediary of choice. From that time, through trade connection, commercial settlements, and even political interventions, India started to strongly influence Southeast Asian countries. Trade routes linked India with southern Burma, central and southern Siam, lower Cambodia and southern Vietnam, and numerous urbanized coastal settlements were established there. 
For more than a thousand years, Indian influence was therefore the major factor that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the various countries of the region. The Pali and Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, together with Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism, were transmitted from direct contact and through sacred texts and Indian literature such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. 
From the 5th to the 13th century, South-East Asia had very powerful empires and became extremely active in Buddhist architectural and artistic creation. The main Buddhist influence now came directly by sea from the Indian subcontinent, so that these empires essentially followed the Mahayana faith. The Sri Vijaya Empire to the south and the Khmer Empire to the north competed for influence, and their art expressed the rich Mahayana pantheon of the Bodhisattvas. 
Vietnam
Srivijaya (5th–15th century), a maritime empire centered at Palembang on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia, adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism under a line of rulers named the Sailendras. Yijing described Palembang as a great centre of Buddhist learning where the emperor supported over a thousand monks at his court. Atisha studied there before travelling to Tibet as a missionary. 
Sriviijaya spread Buddhist art during its expansion in Southeast Asia. Numerous statues of Bodhisattvas from this period are characterized by a very strong refinement and technical sophistication, and are found throughout the region. Extremely rich architectural remains are visible at the Temple of Borobudur (the largest Buddhist structure in the world, built from around 780), in Java, which has 505 images of the seated Buddha. Srivijaya declined due to conflicts with the Chola rulers of India, before being destabilized by the Islamic expansion from the 13th century. 
Khmer Empire
(9th–13th century) 
Later, from the 9th to the 13th century, the Mahayana Buddhist and Hindu Khmer Empire dominated much of the Southeast Asian peninsula. Under the Khmer, more than 900 temples were built in Cambodia and in neighboring Thailand. Angkor was at the center of this development, with a temple complex and urban organization able to support around one million urban dwellers. One of the greatest Khmer kings, Jayavarman VII (1181–1219), built large Mahayana Buddhist structures at Bayon and Angkor Thom. 
Following the destruction of Buddhism in mainland India during the 11th century, Mahayana Buddhism declined in Southeast Asia, to be replaced by the introduction of Theravada Buddhism from Sri Lanka. 
Emergence of the Vajrayana
(5th century) 


Mahayana Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from Nagarjuna (about 150-250), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahayana tradition. From studying his writings, it is clear that Nagarjuna was conversant with both the Nikaya (Hinayana) philosophies and the emerging Mahayana tradition. He made explicit references to Mahayana texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the Tripiṭaka sutras. Completely repudiating the then-dominant Sarvastivada school, which argued for the existence of dharmas (factors of existence) in past, present, and future, Nagarjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be śūnya (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly anātman (no-self) and pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the Madhyamaka. 
After the end of the Kuṣaṇas, Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the Guptas (4th–6th century). Mahayana centers of learning were established, the most important one being the Nalanda University in north-eastern India. Sarvastivada teaching, which was criticized by Nagarjuna was reformulated by scholars such as Vasubandhu and Asaṅga and were incorporated into the Yogacara (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogacara school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahayana theology. 
Vajrayana Buddhism, also called Tantric Buddhism, first emerged in eastern India between the 5th and 7th centuries. It is sometimes considered a sub-school of Mahayana and sometimes a third major “vehicle” (Yana) of Buddhism in its own right. The Vajrayana is an extension of Mahayana Buddhism in that it does not offer new philosophical perspectives, but rather introduces additional techniques (upaya, or “skilful means”), including the use of visualizations and other yogic practices. Many of the practices of Tantric Buddhism are also derived from Hinduism (the usage of mantras, yoga, or the burning of sacrificial offerings). This school of thought was founded by the Brahmin Padmasambhava. 
Early Vajrayana practitioners were forest-dwelling mahasiddas who lived on the margins of society, but by the 9th century Vajrayana had won acceptance at major Mahayana monastic universities such as Nalanda and Vikramshila. Along with much of the rest of Indian Buddhism, the Vajrayana was eclipsed in the wake of the late 12th century Muslim invasions. It has persisted in Tibet, where it was wholly transplanted from the 7th to 12th centuries and became the dominant form of Buddhism to the present day, and on a limited basis in Japan as well where it evolved into Shingon Buddhism. 
There are differing views as to just when Vajrayana and its tantric practice started. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical Sakyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha’s other teachings. The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century. Nalanda University became a center for the development of Vajrayana theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory were transmitted to China, Tibet, Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th c