India

With deeply rooted religious cultural features, India is one of the most religiously diverse nations in the world. In India, religions have always been playing a central and definitive role in the life of the country and most of its people. As one of them, Buddhism was originated in India 2500 years ago and is still practiced today.

Buddhism was founded by Siddharta Gautama, a prince of Shakya clan, at the beginning of the Magadha period (546-324 BC), in the plain of Lumbini, today’s southern Nepal. To search the real truth of life and world, prince Gautama abandoned his luxurious royal life when he was 29 years old and started to live as an ascetic and later “in the middle way”. At 35, he founded Buddhism. He was venerated by his disciples and Buddhists as “Gautama Buddha” or simply “The Buddha” meaning the enlightened one, or “Sakyamuni” which literally means “the sage of the Shakya clan”. During his following 45 years disseminating Buddhism, Shakyamuni traveled mainly in the Gangetic Plain area of central India, teaching his doctrine and discipline to an extremely diverse range of people, leaving legends behind his life.

The evolution of Buddhism in India can be roughly divided into five periods so as to reach a better understanding of it.

The first period is early Buddhism, which covered about 3 to 4 centuries starting from Shakyamuni. This period was highlighted by initial foundation by Siddharta Gautama, rise of Sangha, affirmation of fundamental principles through several councils, royal acceptance of Buddhism and Buddhism’s spread beyond India.

In the 5th century BC, Gautama founded Buddhism, established initial Sangha and disciplines, and advocated fundamental doctrines. Buddhism worships no almighty, creative god, or even the Buddha himself, and encourages all Buddhists including monks and laities to discover the truth at his own discretion, guided by Dharma, of course. The Four Noble Truths constitutes basic tenets – existence is suffering, the cause of suffering is desire, the suffering can be put to cessation, and the way to cease suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path. And, by adherence to Three Jewels and Precepts (five, eight, ten or even more precepts depending on later different followers of different schools), through prajñā (wisdom), śīla (ethic conducts), and samādhi (mental discipline), people thus can cultivate themselves to attain the ultimate happiness of Nirvana, and cast off samsara.

There were several major councils in the early Buddhism period. The first Buddhist council was held soon after the death of the Buddha, at Rajagriha (today’s Rajgir of India), under the patronage of king Ajatasatru of the Magadha empire. It recorded the Buddha’s sayings (sutra) and codified monastic rules (vinaya): Ananda, cousin and main disciple of the Buddha, recited the discourses of the Buddha, and Upali, another disciple, recited the rules of the vinaya. Those later became the basis of the Pali Canon, which since then has been the orthodox text of reference throughout the history of Buddhism. The second Buddhist council was convened by King Kalasoka and held at Vaisali, mainly discussing matters about vinaya concerning bhikkus and bhikkunis. During this council, there began to show signs of early Buddhist schism though many scholars believe there was no actual split happening in Sangha.

The third council was sponsored by famous Ashoka, the Mauryan Emperor, in 250 BC. This council was also held to reconcile the early different schools and purify Buddhist movements. The Pali Canon received formal recognition at this time. Ashoka, who renounced violence and proselytized to Buddhism, contributed greatly to early Buddhism’s dissemination by merging political state with Buddhism. Under his patronage, Buddhism had its first large scale of spread beyond India. Among nine missionary groups sent by Ashoka, Mahinda, son of Ashoka, went to Sri Lanka, officially introduced Buddhism, and proselytized the king over there. Ashoka promulgated series of edicts to promote Buddhism, built thousands of stupas and viharas, and made himself probably the most important patronage and king in the history of Buddhism.

The second is the “sectarian” period of Buddhism, lasting from about the 1st century BC to the 3rd century AD. This period is marked by sprout and formation along lines of Sthaviravāda and Mahāsaṃghika. Each major school has several sub-divisions, eighteen or twenty according to different sources , brewing thoughts and theories for later Mahayana and Hinayana.

Around 100 BC, Kushan emperor Kanishka convened the fourth council at Jalandhar or in Kashmir. This council is usually considered the formal rise of Mahayana Buddhism and its secession from Theravada Buddhism, though Theravada Buddhism did not recognize it and even called it heretical. Another fourth council was held by Theravada monks in Sri Lanka, in opposition of Kashmir monks’ standings.

The third century saw the advent of perhaps the most influential Buddhist thinker after the Buddha, Nagarjuna. His writings became basis of the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school, which was transmitted to China under the name of the Three Treatise (Sanlun) School. Born into a Brahmin family, Nagarjuna used Sanskrit in writing down most of his works. Nāgārjuna’s primary contribution to Buddhist philosophy is in the development of the concept of śūnyatā, or “emptiness,” which brings together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly anatta (no-self) and pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination). Nāgārjuna was also instrumental in the development of the two-truths doctrine, which claims that there are two levels of truth in Buddhist teaching, one directly (ultimately) true, and one conventionally or instrumentally true. Those thoughts also contributed to the theoretical basis of Mahayana.

The third period is the Gold Age (about 4th-6th century AD) for Buddhism not only in India, but also in other areas. By 538 AD, Mahayana had been flourished and spread in the East from India to South-East Asia, and towards the north to Central Asia, China, Korea, and finally to Japan. In the meantime, Theravada also had some new developments. Abhidharma were used to re-interpret the narrative sutra tradition and generate a systematic category of Buddhist scriptures, generalizing and re-organizing the doctrines piecemeal presented in previous scriptures and discourses.

Besides geographical extension, another obvious feature about Buddhism during this period is that numerous Buddhist thinkers and philosophers emerged, producing varieties of new points of view. Buddhism began to transfer from mainly disseminatings Buddha’s teachings and discourse to also including new theories about worldly phenomena. To name a few most prominent scholars during this era, Nagarjuna and his disciple Aryadeva, Buddhaghosa, Asanga and his brother Vasubandhu, and Dignaga, etc. The emergence of those scholars and their theories greatly enhanced the philosophical system of Buddhism and also boded a future trend of scholasticism in Buddhism. After hundreds of years’ patronage from Kings, royal families, and rich merchants, there had already been some kind of vihara economy, which could support monks living in monastic centers instead of solicitation for en route food and clothing offers in the early years of Buddhism. As the power of the Gupta Dynasty was at its peak, society could surely provide more for monks’ preaching and research practices. Dating its foundation back to the 5th century AD according to archeological excavations, Nalanda is the most famous one among those monastic centers, and it gradually became the largest and most influential Buddhist university in history.

The accomplishments were achieved so remarkably that many enthusiasts came to India as pilgrims. Fa Xian, a Chinese monk, came to India via land in 402 and returned from Sri Lanka by sea in 412. His Record of Buddhist Kingdoms contains extremely valuable information about Indian Buddhism at that time.

The fourth period of Indian Buddhism – decline, lasted more than a thousand years. After the 6th century, Buddhism gradually lost the enthusiastic royal and social support, and the world Buddhism center transferred out of India. Buddhism underwent a long time of decline in following centuries. The milestone of Indian Buddhism’s decline is the 1193 destruction of Nalanda by Khilji’s Islamic forces. The exact reason for Buddhism’s decline in India is still under research and dispute. The following factors, however, contributes to it: The invasion of Islamic countries and dissemination of Islam in India. The new rulers destroyed temples, burned Buddhist libraries, drove away or even killed monks. The revival of Hinduism. Hinduism was originated in India, existed for a very long time, and had some common features with Buddhism, whose decline also gave Hinduism new proselytes. The trend of scholasticism and “tantra-ization”. Those contributed to Buddhism’s prosperity as well as diminished its attraction for common people – abstruse in one direction and mysterious in another. As recorded by the Chinese monk Xuanzang in his Journey to the West in the Great Tang Dynasty, before the end of the 7th century, he already saw some deserted Buddhist temples in central Asia. At the same time, Buddhism had also been in relative decline in Northern India. The extrinsic powers pressing down Buddhism had not reached and worked far enough. After the 13th century, Buddhism almost disappeared in India after more than one thousand years of prosperity, leaving only some continuous practices in Himalayan areas such as Ladakh, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim, etc, where Tibetan culture was influential.

At the beginning of the 20th century, however, there emerged a movement of Buddhism revival in India. Historical research and increased contact with the rest of the Buddhist world led to renewed interest in Buddhism. Thinkers such as Iyothee Thass, Brahmananda Reddy, and Dharmananda Kosambi began to discuss it in very favorable terms. During the 1930s, Ambedkar, who declared in 1935 his intention to leave Hinduism because he believed it perpetuated caste injustices, became interested in Buddhism as an alternative. After publishing a series of books and articles arguing that Buddhism was the only way for the Untouchables to gain equality, Ambedkar publicly converted on October 14, 1956 in Nagpur. He took the three refuges and five precepts from a Buddhist monk in the traditional manner and then in his turn administered them to the 380,000 of his followers that were present. Subsequent mass conversions on a lesser scale have occurred since then. Three-quarters of these Indian Buddhists live in Maharashtra. Buddhists form majority population in the Indian states of Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh and Ladakh region of Jammu & Kashmir, and include a small number of tribal peoples in the region of Bengal and Tibetan refugees.

According to the latest census of 2001 in India, there were nearly eight million Buddhists, accounting for about 0.8 percent of Indian population.
India is not a major Buddhist country in the world; it is indeed the most important place of pilgrimage for Buddhists. The origination of Buddhism and prosperity for more than a thousand years gives India great treasures in the history. The Buddha once told his disciples that a pious Buddhist should visit four places: where his was born, where he reached enlightenment, where he was first taught, and where he died. Today, expect Lumbini, the place where Buddha was born and located in Nepal near its border with India, the other three places are in India. Bohd Gaya, where he reached enlightenment, is located at a village in Bihar state in eastern central India. Sarnath, also meaning deer park (Mrigadawa) is the place where Buddha delivered his first preachment, located several miles north of Varanasi (Barnes). It also has an inscribed pillar by Emperor Ashoka and a famous stupa built in the 7th century. Kusinara, where the Buddha attained parinirvana, is a town in Uttar Pradesh state. There are also other famous Buddhist places connected to the life of Gautama Buddha such as Savatthi, Pataliputta, Gaya, Vesali, and Varanasi, etc. An archeological site in northern Bihar state, Nalanda had been the most important Buddhist monist center in the world for several centuries. Nalanda is often mentioned as a Buddhist university, housing thousands of monastic teachers and students at its peak in history. The noted Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang and Yijing provided vivid accounts of it in the 7th century. Nalanda continued its prosperity to the 12th century until it was destroyed by Muslim forces. Those places have been receiving many pilgrims from the world for a very long time.

Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka is an island country in the Indian Ocean, off the southeastern coast of South-Asia subcontinent. Today, of its people little more than 20 million, roughly 75% are Buddhists. 

Sri Lanka is the oldest continually Buddhist country in the world. In the first half of the 3rd century BC, when Sri Lanka under the reign of king Devanampiya Tissa, Buddhism was officially introduced into this island by Mahinda, son of Ashoka the Great who was at that time the ruler of Maurya Empire in today’s eastern India. By that time, these two countries had already established a good relationship through exchange of ambassadors and valuable gifts between the kings. Ever since then, Buddhism has been held as Sri Lanka’s major religion, in most time as its actual national religion. 
Buddhism began as an intellectual and ethical movement in the 6th century BC in India. More than two hundred years later, when Indian missionaries brought Buddhism to Sri Lanka, they took not only teachings of Buddha but also the culture and civilization of the Indian continent. According to research, all rites, ceremonies, festivals and observance concerning Sri Lanka Buddhism at that time were only in slight difference and modification with Indian Buddhism. Pali was the language that Buddha used in his discourses, for instance, and perhaps it is the language closest to Sanskrit. 
The fact that Sri Lanka is one of the few most important Buddhist countries in the world lies to not only its longest history of Buddhism, but also its unique contribution to Theravada Buddhism and its pivotal role in the dissemination of Buddhism. Nearly all of the early schools of Buddhism in the first five hundred years are extinct today, though majority of their fruits have been conceived and sprouted in today’s India and its peripheral areas. Theravada (historically known as “Sthaviravāda”), originated from India’s earlier Buddhism schools, was transmitted to Sri Lanka and later flourished into one of two major branches of Buddhism nowadays after centuries of vicissitude. The early Buddhist documentations of Sri Lanka were initially written in Sinhalese, the local language of Sri Lanka. Indian Buddhist commentator and scholar Buddhaghosa (literally “voice of Buddha” in Pali language) translated the original Sinhalese commentaries into Pali, which perhaps symbolizes the peak of the early Sri Lanka Buddhism. His Visuddhimagga (Pāli: Path of Purification) is a comprehensive manual of Theravada Buddhism that is still read and studied today. The book is divided into sections on Sīla (ethics), Samādhi (meditation), and Pañña (wisdom). Theravada contributed to and preserved the earliest systematical documentations of Buddha’s oral sayings and teachings, known as Tipitaka or the Pali Canon, which has remained as the only existing complete Nikaya (Hinayana) scriptures and been recognized by Buddhists all over the world. That is perhaps partly because that, it is said, Buddha himself explicitly forbade translation of his discourses into Sanskrit, an elitist religious language at that time. Thus, Theravada has never been switched to Sanskrit. It is interesting, though, Pali, as a language, gradually became a scholarly or elite language as well. 
Besides India, Sri Lanka played a critical role in the ensuing process of Buddhism dissemination. It is the pivot through which Theravada spread to Southeast Asian countries in the Middle Ages, roughly between the 11th and 15th centuries. After the golden era between the 4th and 6th centuries in India, as the newly-emerged Mahayana came to dominate the period, Buddhism witnessed its several-century-long continuous decline. Except Tang Dynasty China and its surrounding areas, Buddhism suffered greatly in India and Central Asia under the dual impacts of Muslim invasion and Hinduism resurgence. As a result, not only South and Central Asian Buddhism was set back to so serious an extent that it almost extinguished, but Buddhism (primarily Mahayana) which had already spread to Southeast Asia declined as well. During that period of history, however, Theravada in Sri Lanka, apparently survived much less affected, gradually spread to Southeast Asia areas via trade route by sea. That is why today Theravada takes a dominant position in Buddhism of Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos. 
Nevertheless, much earlier than that, as history reveals, Sri Lanka already spread Buddhism by this course. It is believed that Sanghamitta, who is believed the daughter of Emperor Asoka, came to Sri Lanka and started the first nun order in the 3rd century BC, though the order later died out around the middle of the 11th century AD. In 429 AD, on the request of China’s Han Dynasty emperor the nun from Anuradhapura was sent to China to establish the Nun Order, which was later spread to Korea. And Fa Xian, the famous 4th century Chinese monk, pilgrim and tourist, returned to his motherland by sea also, taking copies of scriptures with him. From a broader point of view, Sri Lanka remained a must-go place in the sea course of increasing trade between East/Southeast Asia and West Asia/Europe in the second millennium AD, not to mention the island itself as a place famous for its variety of gemstones and spices. 
Along with the increasing sea trade, Sri Lanka was also subject to significant impacts, culturally and religiously. The proximity of Sri Lanka to India resulted in invasions and immigrations by Tamils and Hindus, and the Chola of South India also conquered Anuradhapura in the early 11th century. All those contributed to early Sri Lanka Buddhism’s suffering and decline after several centuries of prosperity. The Portuguese conquered the coastal areas in the early 16th century and introduced the Roman Catholic religion, followed by Dutch and British. As the British won control at the beginning of the 19th century Buddhism was well into decline, with English missionaries flooding the island. In the meantime, Theravada Buddhism also was spread to Asia, the West and even Africa. 
A movement to revive Buddhism in Sri Lanka began in the second half of the 19th century through the efforts of monk Gunananda. Colonel Henry Steele Olcott, an ardent American abolitionist came to Sri Lanka in 1870s and enthusiastically supported the revival of Buddhism, followed with aid from a young Sri Lankan Dharmapala. Those movements created widespread support for Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Olcott and his society even managed to persuade the British governor to make Vesak, the chief Buddhist festival, a public holiday. By the mid-20th century, Buddhism was once again as strong as it had been on the island. 
While Theravada is used to refer to a widespread school of Buddhism, “Sinhalese Buddhism” can be used to refer to local Sri Lanka Buddhism, which integrated various religious and cultural elements over its two thousand years of embracing Buddhism. In the modern era, Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka can be divided into three major sects: 
Siyam Nikaya. In the 18th century, the official line of monastic ordination had been broken since monks at that time no longer knew the Pali tradition. The Kandyan king invited then the Theravada monks from Thailand to ordain Sinhalese novices; it was set up later as a reformed sect that enlivened study and proliferation of Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka. 
Amarapura Nikaya. This sect was initiated by members of rising low-country castes discontent with monopoly over the monastic community by the upper castes in the 19th century. The sect was subsequently slit along the caste lines. 
Ramanna Nikaya. This sect was established in the late 19th century as a result of disputes over some points of doctrine and the practice of meditation. 
Each major sect also has various subdivisions, which maintains its own line of ordination. Caste usually determined membership in many of the sects. The members of the Buddhist monastic community preserve the doctrinal purity of early Buddhism, but the lay community accepts a large scope of other beliefs and religious rituals, many features of which came from Hinduism and very old traditions of gods and demons. 
Taking advantage of the close relationship with South Asia subcontinent, either cultural or geographical, Sri Lanka is a place of legend and thus a place of pilgrimage. Soon after the advent of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, Sanghamittha, a Bhikkuni and daughter of Emperor Ashoka, brought a branch of Bodhi tree under which the Buddha had reached the enlightenment. According to legend, the tree that grew from this branch is near the ruins of the ancient city of Anuradhapura in the north of Sri Lanka. The tree is said to be the oldest living thing in the world and is an object of great veneration. 
Legend also has it that Buddha himself visited Sri Lanka several times, three maybe. The Buddha’s visits were not confined to the Theravada tradition at that time, of course. The Lankavatara Sutra, the seminal text of the Ch’an and Zen schools of Buddhism, was believed to be the teachings of Buddha while he was in Sri Lanka, sitting on Sri Pada “which shone like a jewel lotus, immaculate and shining in splendor”. The Chrakasamvara Tantra even mentions Buddha flying to Lanka and leaving the impression of his foot on a mountain. Theravada Buddhism believes no creative god. Buddha, however, became a transcendent divine being with miraculous powers, even his relics. 
The island’s many temples enshrine some of the most revered relics in the world, the most important being the Buddha’s tooth, a strand of his hair and his begging bowel. The sacred Tooth Relic (thought by many to be a substitute) that is venerated in the Temple of the Tooth in Kandy. The annual procession of Perahera held in honor of the sacred Tooth Relic has become a symbol of the island’s cultural tradition, an important event of the country, serving as a force of unity for the Sinhalese in following centuries. 
By about the 3rd century AD a pilgrim’s circuit consisting of sixteen sacred places had been established, most of which were associated with Buddha’s legendary visits to the island. Of these sixteen places, seven are in Anuradhapura, a city once remaining to be the country’s capital for a long time, and the rest are spread widely throughout the country. 
Because of its longest history of Buddhism, Sri Lanka owns many ancient Buddhist relics. Since its founding in 1890, Sri Lanka’s Archaeological Survey has discovered and excavated hundreds of ancient temples, monasteries, shrines and other monuments. At many of these sites inscriptions have been found recording the names of the places, gifts given to various institutions, how much they cost, the names and titles of the donors, what year in the reign of certain kings the gifts were made, and so on. 

myanmar

Myanmar

Myanmar or Burma, officially Union of Myanmar is a country in Southeast Asia. It is bounded on the west by Bangladesh, India, and the Bay of Bengal, north and northeast by China, east by Laos and Thailand, and south by the Andaman Sea. Buddhism in Myanmar is predominantly of the Theravada intermingled with local beliefs, practiced by 89% of the ethnically diverse 45-million population, especially among the Bamar, Rakhine, Shan, Mon, and Chinese. The two major languages are Pali, the liturgical language of Theravada and English. 

The culture of Myanmar is deemed synonymous with its Buddhism. There are many Burmese festivals all through the year, with most of them related to Buddhism. The Burmese New Year, Thingyan, also known as the water festival, has its origins in Hindu tradition but it is also a time when many Burmese boys celebrate shinbyu, a time when a Buddhist boy enters the monastery for a short time as a novice monk. It is the most important duty of all Burmese parents to make sure their sons are admitted to the Buddhist Sangha by shinbyu. 
The history of Buddhism in Myanmar extends nearly one thousand years. The Sasana Vamsa, written by Pinyasami in the 1800s, summarizes much of the history of Buddhism in Myanmar. 
During the reign of King Anawrahta, Theravada Buddhism became prevalent among the Burmese. Prior to his rule existed a form of Mahayana Buddhism, known as Ari Buddhism. It included the worship of Bodhisatta and nagas, and corrupt monks. Anawrahta was converted by Shin Arahan, a monk from Thaton to Theravada Buddhism. In 1057, Anawrahta sent an army to conquer the Mon city of Thaton in order to obtain the Tipitaka Buddhist canon. Mon culture, from that point, came to be largely assimilated into Bamar culture in Bagan. Despite attempts at reform, certain features of Ari Buddhism and traditional nat worship continued. Following kings of Bagan built such a large number of monuments, temples, and pagodas in order to honor Buddhist beliefs and tenets that Bagan soon became a major archaeological site. Burmese rule at Bagan continued until the invasion of the Mongols in 1287. 
The contact with Sri Lanka was very important for the growth of Buddhism in Pagan. It started with the friendship of Anawratha and Vijayabahu, both of whom fought for Buddhism: Anawratha to establish a new kingdom, Vijayabahu to maintain an old one from the Hindu invaders. They supported each other in struggles and together re-established the Theravada doctrine: Anawratha sending bhikkus to Sri Lanka to revive the Sangha, while Vijayabahu reciprocated by sending the sacred texts. The continued contact between the two countries was beneficial to both: many a reform movement, purifying the religion in one country spread to the other as well. Bhikkus visiting from one country were led to look at their own traditions critically and to reappraise their practice of the Dhamma as preserved in the Pali texts. After the fall of the main Buddhist centers in southern India, centers which had been the main allies of the Mon Theravadins in the south, Sri Lanka was the only ally in the struggle for the survival of the Theravada tradition.
During the Pagan period, there were some great scholars and writers. Aggavamsa completed his most famous Saddaniti in 1154, and he was also the teacher of King Narapatisithu (1167-1202). Others are Saddhammajotipala, Vimalabuddhi, etc. Their works contributed to development of Buddhism texts and Pali language. 
Afterward, the Shan established themselves as rulers throughout the region now known as Myanmar. Thihathu, a Shan king, established rule in Bagan, by patronizing and building many monasteries and pagodas. Bhikkus continued to be influential, particularly in Burmese literature and politics. 
The Mon kingdoms, often ruled by Shan chieftains, fostered Theravada Buddhism in the 1300s. Wareru, who became king of Mottama (a Mon city kingdom), patronized Buddhism, and established a code of law (Dhammathat) compiled by Buddhist monks. King Dhammazedi (1472-1492) takes a special place in history of Buddhism in Myanmar for his unifying Sangha in Mon country and purifying bhikku orders. Dhammazedi, formerly a Mon monk, established rule in the late 1400s at Innwa and unified the Sangha in Mon territories. He also standardized ordination of monks set out in the Kalyani Inscriptions. Dhammazedi moved the capital back to Hanthawaddy (Bago). His mother-in-law Queen Shin Sawbu of Pegu was also a great patron of Buddhism. She is credited for expanding and gilding the Shwedagon Pagoda giving her own weight in gold. 
The Bamar, who had fled to Taungoo before the invading Shan, established a kingdom there under the reigns of Tabinshwehti and Bayinnaung who conquered and unified most of modern Myanmar. These monarchs also embraced Mon culture and patronized Theravada Buddhism. 
In the reigns of succeeding kings, the Taungoo kingdom became increasingly volatile. In the mid-1700s, King Alaungpaya expanded the Bamar kingdoms and established the Konbaung dynasty. Under the rule of King Bodawpaya, a son of Alaungpaya, a unified sect of monks (Thudamma) was created within the kingdom. Bodawpaya restored ties with Sri Lanka started by Anawrahta, allowing for mutual influence in religious affairs. In the reigns of the Konbaung kings that followed, both secular and religious literary works were created. King Mindon Min moved his capital to Mandalay. After Lower Burma had been conquered by the British, Christianity began to gain acceptance. Many monks from Lower Burma had resettled in Mandalay, but by decree of Mindon Min, they returned to serve the Buddhist laypeople. However, schisms arose among the Sangha, which were resolved during the Fifth Buddhist Synod, held in Mandalay. From 1868-1871 in the Kuthodaw Pagoda, the Tipitaka was engraved on 729 marble slabs, which formed the basis of the revision work of the Three Pitakas done under the auspices of the Sixth Buddhist Council held in Rangoon during 1954-1956. A new hti (the gold umbrella that crowns a stupa) encrusted with jewels from the crown was also donated by Mindon Min for the Shwedagon in British Burma. 
Sasanavamsa, a chronicle written in Pali by a bhikku for the Fifth Buddhist Council held in Mandalay in 1867, mentions several alleged major events, i.e. the Buddha’s several visits to Myanmar, and the arrival of his Hair Relic in Ukala (Yangon) soon after the Buddha’s enlightenment. 
During the British administration of Lower and Upper Burma, government policies were secular, and monks were not protected by law. Likewise, Buddhism was not patronized by the colonial government. This resulted in tensions between the colonized Buddhists and their European rulers. There was much opposition to efforts by Christian missionaries to convert Burmese people (Bamar, Shan, and hill tribes). Today, Christianity is most commonly practiced by the Chin, Kachin, and the Kayin. Notwithstanding traditional avoidance of political activity, monks often participated in politics and the independence struggle. 
Since 1948 when the country received independence from Great Britain, both civil and military governments have supported Theravada Buddhism. The 1947 Constitution states, “The State recognizes the special position of Buddhism as the faith professed by the great majority of the citizens of the Union.” The Ministry of Religious Affairs, created in 1948, was responsible for continuing Buddhism in Myanmar. In 1954, the Prime Minister, U Nu, convened the Sixth Buddhist Synod in Rangoon (Yangon), which was attended by 2,500 monks. It was during this time that the World Buddhist University was established. 
During the military rule of Ne Win (1962-1988), he attempted to reform Burma under the Burmese Way to Socialism which contained elements of Buddhism.  
Myanmar retains Buddhism traditions, some of which are quite unique. After a child passes 7-year age, the parents send him to the monastery to practice Buddhist teachings and receive education. Before children leave, they celebrate by a ceremony called “Shinbyu”. Boys dress like princes and ride the horse as Buddhists. That was the way the Buddha left his royal family to search the truth. Myanmar people believe that doing so would help boys achieve better adulthood. 
Buddhism contributes to Burmese politics. Burmese nationalism first began with the Young Men’s Buddhist Associations (YMBA) - modeled after the YMCA - which started to appear all over the country. Civilian governments patronized Buddhism after independence. Leaders of political parties and parliamentarians, in particular U Nu, passed Buddhist influenced legislations, and declared Buddhism the state religion. 
In Myanmar today there are over 400,000 monks and 75,000 nuns, 6,000 viharas and countless pagodas. About 1,000 of the viharas serve as educational institutions for the monastic community. Some of the larger monasteries have over 1000 monks studying the Buddhist scriptures and meditation practices. 
It is interesting that nuns in Myanmar have a much higher status than in some other Eastern countries. Myanmar has the largest number of nuns in the world. They are well respected by their own people and usually have their own independent monastic and meditation centers. Many nuns have an equal or greater level of spiritual and scholarly attainment as the monks. 
One monastery in Mandalay has 2,600 monks devoted to the study of the Pali Canon, The Commentaries and Sub-Commentaries. Monastic institutions of this type and size are unique in the world today and exist only in Myanmar. There are also several meditation centers for lay people and monastics, each catering for over 1,000 meditators. The ordinary people of Myanmar are very much involved in supporting all this. 
In 1998, The Buddhist University was established. It is a permanent center of higher learning of Theravada Buddhism, located on the beautiful site of the sacred Dhammapala hill near the Sacred Tooth Relic Pagoda, Yangon. 
Myanmar’s history of Buddhism is portrayed by a landscape filled with pagodas which is why the country is often called “the land of pagodas.” The Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon is surrounded by myths, and represents faith of the people who have worshipped there for generations. Shwedagon Pagoda has been a local venue for large meetings where both Aung San and his daughter Aung San Suu Kyi had made their famous speeches. The second university strike in history of 1936 was also held at that location. Every village in Myanmar has a pagoda, which is the place for worship and education. 
Due to its many ancient pagodas, UNESCO has long tried to designate Bagan (formerly Pagan) as World Heritage Site, but unfortunately failed. 

Thailand

Thailand

As the state religion, Buddhism in Thailand is largely of the Theravada school. As much as 94% of Thailand’s population is Buddhist of the Theravada school, though Buddhism in this country has become integrated with folk beliefs such as ancestor worship as well as Chinese religions from the large Thai-Chinese population. Owing to the tremendous influence Buddhism exerts on the lives of its people, Thailand is called by many foreigners “The Land of Yellow Robes,” for yellow robes are the garments of Buddhist monks.

There is no uniform opinion concerning when Buddhism was propagated into Thailand. It is widely believed by Thais, that Indian Emperor Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to Thailand in the 3rd century BC. Mahavamsa, the ancient Ceylon chronicle, described the Ashoka missionary groups to nine territories. Among them, two Theras (elder monks), Sona and Uttara, were sent to Suvarnabhumi. Scholars from different countries argue about its exact location, though some thought it was in Thailand. Others hold the view that Thailand received Buddhism much later. Various archeological remains unearthed at Nakon Pathom, however, indicate that perhaps Buddhism was introduced into Thailand as early as the 3rd century BC. 
In history, Indian traders and settlers did for seven hundred years frequent the shores of Thailand. The early settlers brought both Hinduism and Buddhism, as evidenced by numerous images of Vishnu, Shiva and Buddha found in early sites in Thailand. Animism antedated both Hinduism and Buddhism in Thailand and has persisted to the present day, chiefly in the form of spirit shrines at doors, yards and business premises. By the 6th century AD, Buddhism had already been well established in south and central areas of what is now Thailand. Later, Mahayana and Tantra together with Hinduism became the predominant religions. 
The first form of Buddhism in Thailand was Theravada imported from Sri Lanka, which also had the most visible influence. While there are significant local and regional variations, the Theravada school provides most of the major themes of Thai Buddhism. By tradition, Pāli is the language of religion in Thailand. Scriptures are recorded in Pāli, using either the modern Thai script or the older Khom and Tham scripts. Pāli is also used in religious liturgy, despite the fact that most Thais understand very little of this ancient language. The Pāli Tipitaka is the primary religious text of Thailand, though many local texts have been composed in order to summarize the vast number of teachings found in the Tipitaka. The monastic code (Patimokkha) followed by Thai monks is taken from the Pāli Theravada- something that has provided a point of controversy during recent attempts to resurrect the bhikkuni lineage in Thailand. 
The Monks of southern Burma adopted Theravada Buddhism at an early date and thereafter influenced the religious history of Thailand by invading the central valley of the Menam Chao Phya and setting up the Kingdom of Dvaravati which lasted from the 3rd to the 7th centuries. They left numerous stupas and a distinctive style of Buddhist image. Theravada Buddhism in Thailand was further strengthened after King Anawrahta of Burma captured Thanton in 1057. From there he carried to his capital at Pagan a number of Theravadin monks together with the Pali canon, and being an ardent Theravadin, he spread his religion along with his conquests in northern Thailand. Later as the Thai moved south from Yuman in the 12th  and 13th centuries they came in contact with this form of Buddhism. When they set up the Thai Kingdom of Sukhothai in about 1238, Theravada Buddhism became the state religion. 
With the growth of Mahayana Buddhism in India, the sect also spread to the neighboring countries. It is probable that Mahayana Buddhism was introduced to Burma, Pegu (Lower Burma) and Dvaravati (now Nakon Pathom in Western Thailand) from Magadha (in Bihar, India) at the same time as it went to the Malay Archipelago. But probably it did not have any stronghold there at that time; hence no spectacular trace was left of it. By about 757 AD (Buddhist Era: 1300), the Mahayanists Srivijaya king rose in power and spread his empire throughout the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago. Part of South Thailand (from Surasthani downwards) came under its rule. Srivijaya encouraged and supported propagation of Mahayana. In South Thailand today there is much evidence of Mahayana prevalent there. Nevertheless, there are no indications that the Mahayana superseded the Theravada in any way. This was due to the fact that Theravada Buddhism was already on a firm basis in Thailand when Mahayana was introduced there. 
Besides Buddhism itself, Hindu beliefs received from Cambodia also had quite influence on Thai Buddhism, particularly during the Sukhothai period. Vedic Hinduism played a strong rule in the early Thai institution of kingship, just as it did in Cambodia, and exerted influence in the creation of laws and order for Thai society as well as Thai religion. Certain rituals practiced in modern Thailand, either by monks or by Hindu ritual specialists, are either explicitly identified as Hindu in origin, or are easily seen to be derived from Hindu practices. While the visibility of Hinduism in Thai society has diminished substantially during the Chakri dynasty, Hindu influences - particularly shrines to the god Brahma- continue to be seen in and around Buddhist institutions and ceremonies. Sanskrit, the sacred language of the Hindus, took its root deep in Thailand during these times.
In modern times, additional Mahayana influence has stemmed from the presence of Chinese immigrants in Thai society. While some Chinese have “converted” to Thai-style Theravada Buddhism, many others maintain their own separate temples in the East Asian Mahayana tradition. The growing popularity of the goddess Kuan Yin in Thailand (a form of Avalokitesvara) may be attributable to the Chinese Mahayanist presence in Thailand. 
Some aspects of folk religion such as attempts to propitiate and attract the favor of local spirits known as phi form another major influence on Thai Buddhism. While Western observers (as well as urbane and Western educated Thais) have often drawn a clear line between Thai Buddhism and folk religious practices, this distinction is rarely observed in more rural locales. Spiritual power derived from the observance of Buddhist precepts and rituals is employed in attempting to appease local nature spirits. Many restrictions observed by rural Buddhist monks are derived not from the orthodox Vinaya, but from taboos derived from the practice of folk magic. Astrology, numerology, and the creation of talismans and charms also play a prominent role in Buddhism as practiced by the average Thai- topics that are, if not proscribed, at least marginalized in Buddhist texts. Additionally, more minor influences can be observed stemming from contact with Mahayana Buddhism. Early Buddhism in Thailand is thought to have been derived from an unknown Mahayana tradition. While Mahayana Buddhism was gradually eclipsed in Thailand, certain features of Thai Buddhism- such as the appearance of the bodhisattva Lokesvara in some Thai religious architecture, and the belief that the king of Thailand is a bodhisattva himself- reveal the influence of Mahayana concepts. The only other bodhisattva prominent in Thai religion is Maitreya; Thais sometimes pray to be reborn during the time of Maitreya, or dedicate merit from worship activities to that end. 
The history of Thailand begins in the 13th century with the rise of the Sukhothai Kingdom, whose people were one in blood and language with the present Thais. Under devout kings of Ayudhya, Buddhism flourished, and by 1750 must have accumulated great quantities of sacred writings and valuable chronicles connected with the Monastic Order. Practically all such writings were destroyed in the devastation that attended the Burmese invasion of 1766-1767. Ayudhaya, the capital, fell after a siege of fourteen months during which fires and epidemics ravaged the city. However, by the 13th and 14th centuries monks from Sri Lanka succeeded in establishing Theravada Buddhism and it has remained the state religion ever since.
The first two kings of the present Chakri dynasty, who reigned from 1782 to 1824, are known by the names of Phra Buddha Yod Fa and Phra Buddha Loet la. While the third king, Phra Nang Klao, did not possess the name “Buddha”, he was known for his devotion to the Order and his aid in temple building and scriptural revision. The son of King Mongkut, Prince Vajirayanvaroros was virtually head of the Buddhist Monastic Order from 1892 to 1910; until his death in 1921 he was Prince Patriarch. Thereafter a grandson of Rama III became Prince Patriarch and filled this high position until his death in 1937. It has been the custom of all the Thai kings to serve a novitiate in the temple of their youth, thus the Throne has been closely bound to the Buddhist Order by ties of experience as well as by personal interest. 
Thailand is perhaps the only country in the world where the king is constitutionally stipulated to be a Buddhist and the upholder of the Faith. In the 19th century King Mongkut, himself a former monk, conducted a campaign to reform and modernize the monkhood, a movement that has continued in the present century under the inspiration of several great ascetic monks from the northeast of the country.
Formerly, and in accordance with the Administration of the Bhikku Sangha Act (1943), the Sangha organization in Thailand was on a line similar to that of the State. The Sangharaja or the Supreme Patriarch is the highest Buddhist dignitary, whose is chosen by the King in consultation with the Government from among the most senior and qualified members of the Sangha. The Sangharaja appoints a council of Ecclesiastical Ministers headed by the Sangha Nayaka, whose position is analogous to that of the Prime Minister of the State. Under the Sangha Nayaka there function four ecclesiastical boards, namely the Board of Ecclesiastical Administration, the Board of Education, the Board of Propagation and the Board of Public Works.
Each of the boards has a Sangha Mantri (equivalent to a minister in the secular administration) with his assistants. The four boards or ministries are supposed to look after the affairs of the entire Sangha. It may be pointed out here that all religious appointments in Thailand are based on scholarly achievements, seniority, personal conduct and popularity, and contacts with monks further up in the Sangha. 
There is a Department of Religious Affairs in the Ministry of Education which acts as a liaison office between the Government and the Sangha. All temples and monasteries are State property. 
There are two Buddhist sects or Nikayas in Thailand. One is Mahanikaya, and the other is Dhammayuttika. Mahanikaya is older and by far the more numerous one, with the ratio of the two sects being 35 to 1. Dhammayuttika Nikaya was founded in 1833 by King Mongkut. The differences between the two Nikayas are not great; at most they concern only matters of discipline, and never of the Doctrine. Monks of both sects follow the same 227 Vinaya rules as laid down in the Patimokkha of the Vinaya Pitaka (the Basket of the Discipline), and both receive the same esteem from the public. In general appearance and daily routine of life, except for the slight difference in the manners of putting on the yellow robes, monks of the two Nikayas differ very little from each other.
Unlike Burma and Sri Lanka, the female Theravada bhikkuni lineage was never established in Thailand. Lay women primarily participate in religious life either as lay participants in collective merit-making rituals, or by doing domestic work around temples. A small number of women choose to become Mae Ji, non-ordained religious specialists who permanently observe either the eight or ten precepts. 
Young men typically do not live as a novice more than one or two years. At 20, they become eligible to receive upasampada, the higher ordination to establish them as a full bhikku. Temporary ordination is the norm among Thai Buddhists. Most young men traditionally ordain for the term of a single rainy season (known in Pāli as vassa, and in Thai as phansa). Those who remain monks beyond their first vassa typically remain monks for between one and three years. After this period, most young monks return to lay life for marriage and family. A period as a monk is a prerequisite for many positions of leadership within the village hierarchy. Most village elders or headmen were once monks, as were most traditional doctors, spirit priests, and some astrologists and fortune tellers. 
There are about 21,000 wats in Thailand. In Bangkok alone there are nearly two hundred, and some have as many as 600 resident monks and novices. Wats are centers of Thai art and architecture, also the most important institution in rural life. The social life of rural communities revolves around the wat. Besides routine religious activities, a wat serves the community as a recreation center, dispensary, school, community center, home for the aged and destitute, social work and welfare agency, village clock, rest-house, news agency, and information center. 
From the 1st to 7th centuries, Buddhist art in Thailand was first influenced by direct contact with Indian traders and the expansion of the Mon kingdom, leading to the creation of Hindu and Buddhist art inspired from the Gupta tradition, with numerous monumental statues of great virtuosity. 
From the 9th century, the various schools of Thai art then became strongly influenced by Cambodian Khmer art in the north and Sri Vijaya art in the south, both of which are  Mahayana faith. Up to the end of that period, Buddhist art had been characterized by a clear fluidness in the expression, and the subject matter is characteristic of the Mahayana pantheon with multiple creations of Bodhisattvas. 
From the 13th century, Theravada Buddhism was introduced from Sri Lanka around the same time as the ethnic Thai kingdom of Sukhothai was established. The new faith inspired highly stylized images in Thai Buddhism, with sometimes very geometrical and almost abstract figures. 
During the Ayutthaya period (14th -18th centuries), the Buddha came to be represented in a more stylistic manner with sumptuous garments and jeweled ornamentations. Many Thai sculptures or temples tended to be gilded, and on occasion enriched with inlays.
Buddhist temples in Thailand are characterized by tall golden stupas, and the Buddhist architecture of Thailand is similar to that in other Southeast Asian countries, particularly Cambodia and Laos, with which Thailand shares cultural and historical heritage. 

Laos

Laos

Buddhism practiced in Laos is Theravada, using Pali language. Landlocked and surrounded by more powerful cultures, Laos remains the poorest country in Southeast Asia nearly in every way. 

The faith of Buddhism was introduced beginning in the 8th century by Mon Buddhist monks and has been widespread by the 14th century. A number of Laotian kings were important patrons of Buddhism. Virtually all lowland Lao were Buddhists in the early 1990s, as well as some Lao Theung who have assimilated to lowland culture. Since 1975 the communist government has not opposed Buddhism but rather has attempted to facilitate its political goals. In the early 1990s, increased prosperity and relaxation of political control stimulated the revival of popular Buddhist practices. 
Besides almost universal acceptance of Buddhism, most Laotians also believe in the rich traditional spiritual life, Animism. The belief in phi (spirits) affects the people’s relationship to nature, provides a cause of illness and misfortune, and shapes interpersonal relationships. Phi has much in common with the spirits of the land worshipped in other Southeast Asian countries. Many of the Wats have small spirit huts included on their grounds and many of the village monks are respected as having the ability to exorcise malevolent spirits or contact favorable ones. 
The original inhabitants of Laos were Austro-Asiatic peoples living by hunting and gathering before the advent of agriculture. The Mekong became the most important river as its many tributaries allowed traders to penetrate deep into the hinterland, where they bought products such as cardamom, gum benzoin, and foods. With development of agriculture and fiefdoms, a plurality of power centers occupied the middle Mekong Valley in early times. At its peak, Funan, had its mandala incorporate parts of central Laos. 
Lao history in fact begins in the 14th century with a risqué event, the seduction of one of the king’s wives by his son Phi Fa, who and whose son Fa Ngum journeying south later stayed in Khmer royal court at Angkor. There, Fa Ngum studied under a Theravadin monk, gained favor of the Khmer king, and eventually married one of his daughters. In about 1350, the king of Angkor helped Fa Ngum to reassert control over his father’s lost inheritance. 
By this time, Angkor was in a state of decline, and the power center in Thailand had shifted southward from Sukkhothai to Ayutthaya. Those helped Fa Ngum to establish an independent kingdom, with ties to Angkor, along the upper reaches of the Mekong River. Fa Ngum’s coronation at Luang Phrabang in 1353 marked the beginning of the historical Laos state. It also established the farthest northern extent of Khmer civilization, since Fa Ngum’s kingdom was modeled on Angkoran precedents even though the Laos are racially related to the Thais. Moreover, Fa Ngum invited his Buddhist teacher at the Khmer court to act as his advisor and chief priest. Under his influence the new kingdom of Laos became firmly Theravadin, as it has remained to the present day. This Buddhist master brought with him from Angkor a Buddha image known as the “Phra Bang”. This image accounts for the capital’s name and like the tooth relic of the Buddha in Sri Lanka, became the palladium of the kingdom. 
From beginning, Laos seems to be just strong enough to maintain a separate identity in the midst of its more powerful neighbors. Because of the relatively weak central government of Laos, Theravada Buddhism became the primary instrument to hold together ethnic groups and inaccessible villages scattered through the mountains. According to the Lao model of kingship, the king on throne is not much because of divine right as because of his obviously good karma in previous lives. He was expected to continue that good karma in this life by supporting the Sangha and promoting Buddhism through royal construction projects. Pursuing this role, King Visun (1501-1520) is remembered as the prime mover behind the splendor of Luang Phrabang, the first capital of Laos. Visun brought to fruition an ambitious Buddhist construction program begun by his two older brothers in order to repair damage by the Vietnamese. Luang Phrabang remains the site of some of the most attractive Buddhist monuments and ruins in Southeast Asia. 
Visun’s grandson Setthathirat occupied the throne in 1548, shifted the capital from Luang Phrabang to Vien Chan, a site closer to the Thai capital at Ayutthaya and more conducive to trade with and supervision by the Thais.  
Remnants of Sutthathriat’s works still stand, the most notable being the hundred-yard square That Luang or “Great Shrine”, a temple mountain built in the Khmer style. Setthathriat also built a second grand temple to house a precious jade Buddha known as the Phra Keo. This image was the second palladium of Laos until it was removed to Bangkok by a Thai invading force in 1778. It has remained in Bangkok ever since in the Wat Phra Keo as Thailand’s most sacred image. 
In 1782, the Thais restored the Vietnamese dynasty as a puppet regime in Vien Chan and returned the Phra Bang Buddha image. Despite continuing Thai domination of the entirety of Laos, the country remained divided into a northern and southern kingdom until 1893, when the French blockaded Bangkok and forced Thailand to cede to France the upper reaches of the Mekong River. The French protectorate thus established over Laos had little to do with the distribution of the Lao people, many of whom still resided in Thai territory. 
After World War II, The French collapse in Southeast Asia in 1954 led to a coalition government in which both Lao royalists and Lao communists were represented. This coalition quickly collapsed, and Laos, like Vietnam, entered the 1960’s in the throes of a full-scale civil war between communist and pro-Western factions. After the American defeat in Vietnam in 1975, the communists quickly gained control. 
Beginning in the late 1950s, the Pathet Lao attempted to convert monks to the leftist cause and to use the Sangha’s influence to increase their status among the people. The politicization of the monastic community continued after the assumption of power by the Pathet Lao in 1975. As mild attitude the government holds toward Buddhism, many monks compelled to spread party propaganda fled to Thailand, while other pro-Pathet Lao monks joined the newly formed Lao United Buddhists Association, which replaced the former religious hierarchy. The number of men and boys ordained dropped and many Wats were emptied. 1979 saw the lowest point of Buddhism in Laos. 
From the late 1980s, stimulated by economic reform and political relaxation, donations to wat and participation in Buddhist festivals increased. Festivals at villages and neighborhood level became more elaborate, ordinations increased, and household blessing ceremonies conducted by monks began to recur. Buddhism in Laos has been changed by the socialist government, however, its importance to lowland Lao and the organization of Lao Loum society remained fundamental. 
In Laos, all males generally spend a period of time as a monk in youth, from one week to as long as several years, but typically 2-4 months. Ordination to a monk brings great merit to the boy as well as his parents. It had the advantage in that the novices were taught to read and write as well as learning about Buddhist precepts. This time in the monastery generally during the rainy season is often called the “retreat”, between the months of June and October. Young monks observe 75 rules and full-fledged monks vow to observe the 227 rules of monastic order. 
Like other Southeast Asian countries, Buddhism in Laos brings people festivals in the agricultural working year. The first, Bun Pha Wat, occurs in January, at different dates in different villages, and commemorates the life story of Buddha in one of his previous incarnations. The Magha Puga ceremony, held on the full moon night in February, commemorates the first sermon of Buddha in the Deer Park. The festival consists of parades of worshippers bearing candles circling local temples, music and chanting. In March, a harvest festival, Boun Khoun Khao is celebrated in which the villagers give gifts to the monastery. One of the most important celebrations occurs in April and last several days. Boun Pimai, the Lao New Year, is characterized by, among other things, the throwing of buckets of water on all people. Symbolizing the washing away of sins and a new beginning, the festival also involves washing Buddha statues, feasts, visiting family and temples, dancing and singing. 
The Visakha Puja, memory of the Buddha’s birth, enlightenment and death, occurring in May, is celebrated by candlelit processions to temples and sermons. The rocket Festival (Boun Bang Fai) at the same time is a remnant of pre-Buddhist rain-making ceremonies, highlighted by the firing of huge, ornate, homemade bamboo rockets. Rocket makers are honored if their rockets fly the highest. 
The most sacred time in the Buddhist calendar is the Rain Retreats, also the Buddhist Lent in English. Lay people undertake fasts or meditations, and imitate the lives of monks and nuns. Usually no wedding is held during the Retreats. It begins and ends with celebrations: the Khao Phansaa on the first full moon in July and the Awk Phansaa on the first full moon in October. 
In August, the Haw Khao Padap Din festival occurs. This is a day devoted to remembering and paying respect to the dead. While this festival is observed through the Buddhist world, one unusual aspect of the Laotian ceremony is that recently dead bodies are exhumed, cleaned and cremated, to the prayers and chanting of monks and nuns. 
The focal point of every village and town is the temple or the Wat. This is a symbol for village identity, the focus of the festivals, the site of local schools, and the residence of the monks. Depending on the wealth and contributions of the villagers, the buildings vary from simple wood and bamboo structures to large, ornate brick and concrete edifices decorated with colorful murals and tile roofs shaped to mimic the curve of the naga, the mythical snake or water dragon. An administrative committee made up of respected older men manages the financial and organizational affairs of the Wat. 
The Pha That Luang, Wat Sisakhet, Wat Xieng Thong, and That Dam are all Buddhist structures in Laos. Lao Buddhism is also famous for images of the Buddha performing uniquely Lao mudras, or gestures, such as calling for rain, and striking uniquely Lao poses. 
Lao artisans have, throughout the past, used a variety of mediums in sculpture. Bronze is probably the most common, gold and silver images also exist. The Phra Say of the sixteenth century is made of gold, carried home by Siamese as booty in the late 18th century. Today, it is in enshrined at Wat Po Chai in Nongkhai, Thailand. The Phra Say’s two companion images, the Phra Seum and Phra Souk, are also in Thailand. Perhaps the most famous sculpture in Laos is the Phra Bang, also cast in gold, but the craftsmanship is held to be of Sinhalese rather than Lao origin. Tradition maintains that relics of the Buddha are contained in the image. 
A number of colossal images in bronze exist. Most notable of these are the Phra Ong Teu (16th century) of Vientiane, the Phra Ong Teu of Sam Neua, the image at Vat Chantabouri (16th century) in Vientiane and the image at Wat Manorom (14th century) in Luang Phrabang, which seems to be the oldest of the colossal sculptures. The Manorom Buddha, of which only the head and torso remain, shows that colossal bronzes were cast in parts and assembled in place. 
The most famous two sculptures carved in semi-precious stone are the Phra Keo (The Emerald Buddha) and the Phra Phuttha Butsavarat. The Phra Keo, which is probably of Xieng Sen (Chiang Saen) origin, is carved from a solid block of jade. It had rested in Vientiane for two hundred years before the Siamese carried it away as booty in the late 18th century. Today it serves as the palladium of the Kingdom of Thailand, and resides with the king at the Grand Palace in Bangkok. The Phra Phuttha Butsavarat, like the Phra Keo, is also enshrined in its own chapel at the Grand Palace in Bangkok. Before the Siamese seized it in the early 19th century, this crystal image was the palladium of the Lao kingdom of Champassack. 
In the Pra Lak Pra Lam, the Lao Ramayana, instead of having Rama portrayed as an incarnation of Vishnu, Rama is an incarnation of the Buddha. Lao people have also written many versions of the Jataka Tales.

Cambodia

Cambodia

Buddhism in Cambodia dates back to at least the 5th century AD. Jayavarman of Fu-nan, Suryvarman I and Jayavarman VII were all Buddhists. Up to the 13th century, Cambodia was primarily influenced by Mahayana Buddhism and Saivism. After the 13th century Theravada Buddhism became the main religion of Cambodia, and today ninety-five percent of Cambodians hold Theravada, the country’s official religion. 

The beginning of Buddhism in the present-day area of Cambodia might be traced back to more than two thousand years ago. In 238 BC Emperor Ashoka sent two Bhikkus named Sona Thera and Utara Thera to propagate Buddhism in Suwanaphumi, Southeast Asia today. From that time Buddhism has flourished throughout the land of Suwanaphumi, and some main events can be noted in various ancient kingdoms, especially Funan Kingdom (first state of present-day Cambodia). 
Among the kings of Funan dynasty, Kaundinya Jayavarman (478-514 AD) sent a mission to China under the leadership of a Buddhist monk named Nagasena from India. During the reign of the same Chinese emperor, two learned Khmer monks Sanghapala Thera and Mantra Thera of Funan went to China in the early years of the 6th century AD to teach Buddhism and meditation for the emperor of China. Bhikku Sanghapala had translated an important Buddhist scripture Vimutti Magga (the Way of Freedom) which they believed was older than Visutthi Magga (the Way of Purity) of Buddhagosacara. Now this scripture has only Chinese version in existence and many Buddhist countries have translated it into their own language. 
King Rudravarman (514-539 AD) is said to have claimed that in his country there was a long Hair Relic of Lord Buddha for his people to worship. Tharavada preached in Sanskrit language flourished in Funan in the 5th century and the early years of the 6th century. Around the 7th century, the popular usage of Pali language in the southern region suggested the strong appearance of Theravada Buddhism in Cambodia. 
The great emperor, Yasovarman (889-900 AD) established a Saugatasrama and elaborated regulations for the guidance of this asrama or hermitage when Buddhism and Brahmanism(both Visnuism and Vaisnavism) flourished in Cambodia. During the reign of Jayavarman V (968-1001 AD), the successor of Rajendravarman II, Mahayana Buddhism grew with increasing importance. The king supported Buddhist practices and invoked the three forms of existence of the Buddha. In this way, up to the 10th century AD, Mahayana Buddhism had become quite prominent. 
Pramakramabahu I, the king of Sri Lanka, is said to have sent a princess as a bride probably for Jayavarman VII, son of Dharnindravarman II (1150-1160 AD), who was the crown prince. King Jayavarman VII (1181-1220 AD) was a devout Buddhist and received posthumously the title of Mahaparamasaugata. The king patronized Mahayana Buddhism and historical records about him express beautifully the typical Buddhist view of life, particularly the feelings of charity and compassion towards the whole universe. His Taprohm Inscription informs us that there were 798 temples and 102 hospitals in the whole kingdom, and all of them were given full support by the king. One of the monks who returned to Burma with Capata Bhikku was Tamalinda Mahathera, who most probably was the son of the Cambodian King Jayavarman VII. Under the threat of flowing of Sihala Buddhism, his prestige diminished, his temporal power crumbled away, and the god-king worshipping was concealed. Theravada Buddhism had become the predominant religion of the people of Angkor by the end of Jayavarman VII ‘s reign. 
In the second half of the 12th century, Sri Lanka’s fame as the fountain-head of Theravada Buddhism reached the Buddhist countries of Southeast Asia. The knowledge of Sinhala Buddhism was so widespread and the Sinhala monks were so well-known to the contemporary Buddhist world. At this time a Cambodian prince is said to have visited Sri Lanka to study Sinhala Buddhism under the guidance of the Sinhala Mahatheras. Buddhism continued to flourish in Kambuja in the 13th century but yet to become the dominant religious sect in the country. After then, Theravada became the main type of Buddhism in Cambodia. The change was undoubtedly due to the influence of the Thais, who were ardent Buddhists and had conquered a large part of Cambodia land. Under the influence of the Thais, Sinhala Buddhism was also introduced to Cambodia. With the passage of time, the Brahmanical Gods like those worshipped during the Angkor period were replaced by Buddhist images. Gradually, Buddhism became the dominant creed in Kambuja and today there is hardly any trace of the Brahmanical religion in the country. 
The Jinakalamali gives an account of the cultural connection between Cambodia and Sri Lanka in the 15th century. It states that 1967 years after the Mahaparanibbana of Lord Buddha, eight monks headed by Mahananasiddhi from Cambodia with 25 monks from Nabbispura in Thailand came to Sri Lanka to receive the Upasampada ordination at the hands of the Sihalese Mahatheras. Buddhism continued to flourish in Cambodia in the 16th century . King Ang Chan (1516-1566), a relative of king Dhammaraja, was a devout Buddhist. He built pagodas in his capital and many Buddhist shrines in different parts of Cambodia. In order to popularize Buddhism, King Satha (1576-1594), son and successor of Barom Reachea, restored the great third floor of Angkor Wat (in the past it was erected and dedicated to the God of Visnu), which was built by King Suriyavarman II (1130-1150), which had become a Buddhist shrine or Buddhist temple by the 16th century. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Thailand’s interference in Cambodia’s politics helped the former to influence the religious world of the latter. Though Thailand disturbed Cambodia’s politics and hampered its progress but the Thai kings and their Buddhist world made contribution to the progress of Buddhism in Cambodia. 
After gaining liberation from French colonists, Cambodia Buddhism grew up again under the patronage of King Norodom Sihanouk. In that time Cambodia had many Buddhist scholars such as Somdech Choun Nat, Somdech Hout Tat, Pang Khat and Kiev Chom, etc, as the active leaders of developing Buddhism in Cambodia. During the reign of Sihanouk, Buddhism was made state religion of Cambodia. 
In 1975, communists took control of Cambodia and try to destroy Buddhism. Religious practices were forbidden, and temples, pagodas, and Buddhist libraries systematically destroyed. In 1981, about 4,930 monks served in 740 wats in Cambodia. The Buddhist General Assembly reported 7,000 monks in 1,821 active wats a year later. In 1969 by contrast, observers estimated that 53,400 monks and 40,000 novice monks served in more than 3,000 wats. It is estimated that about 50,000 monks lost their lives during the Khmer Rouge regime. 
Buddhism plays substantial functions in Cambodia. Besides the traditional role of monks in participation in all formal village festivals, ceremonies, marriages, and funerals, Buddhism also plays its part in politics, especially in education. Until the 1970s, most literate Cambodian males had gained literacy solely through the instruction of the sangha. Today Buddhism is struggling to re-establish itself although the lack of Buddhist scholars and learned leaders and the continuing political instability are making the task difficult. The Preah Sihanouk Raja Buddhist University has been established and the state manages to develop Pali schools and the 1931 royally-founded Buddhist institutes. 
Two monastic orders constitute the Buddhist clergy in Cambodia. The larger group, to which more than 90 percent of the clergy belonged, was the Mohanikay. The far smaller order, Thommayut, was introduced into the ruling circles of Cambodia from Thailand in 1864, and has revived in recent years; it gained prestige because of its adoption by royalty and by the aristocracy, but its adherents were confined geographically to the Phnom Penh area. Among the few differences between the two orders is stricter observance by the Thommayut bonzes (monks) of the rules governing the clergy. In 1961 the Mohanikay had more than 52,000 ordained monks in some 2,700 wats, whereas the Thommayut order had 1,460 monks in just over 100 wats. In 1967 more than 2,800 Mohanikay wats and 320 Thommayut wats were in existence in Cambodia. Each order has its own superior and is organized into a hierarchy of eleven levels. The seven lower levels are known collectively as the thananukram; the four higher levels together are called the rajagana. Each monk must serve for at least twenty years to be named to these highest levels. 
History left Cambodia and Buddhism great legacy, the Angkor sites. Angkor Thom, the great city, was the last and enduring capital of Khmer Empire from the 9th to 15th century. In mid 15th century, the Siamese captured and sacked the city. Temples were destroyed and inhabitants driven to south. Angkor city was abandoned and left to ruins some time prior to 1609. The city lies at the right bank of Siem Reap river, nearly 2km north to the gate of Angkor Wat. Angkor Thom is in the Bayon style. This manifests itself in the large scale of the construction, in the widespread use of laterite, in the face-towers at each of the entrances to the city and in the naga-carrying giant figures which accompany each of the towers.
Among the temples, Angkor Wat is the peak. It is a temple complex in northwest Cambodia, the world’s largest religious structure, about 1550 meters by 1400 meters. Angkor Wat was built in the early 12th century by King Suryarman II to protect his kingdom and people, and to worship gods. Angkor Wat was initially dedicated to Vishnu and then to Buddhism. The Wat, an artificial mountain originally surrounded by a vast external wall and moat, rises in three enclosures toward a flat summit. The five remaining towers (shrines) at the summit are composed of the repetitive diminishing tiers typical of Asian architecture, more Cambodian actually. There were about 600 temples at Angkor Wat as it was discovered. 
There are also other noteworthy temples at the large Angkor sites area. Bayon Temple, the state temple of Jayarvaman VII in the late 13th century, is located at the center of Angkor Thom, famous for its gigantic head sculptures. Others are Srei Preah Ko Temple (879), Banteay Temple (967), Prasat Kravan Temple (921), Pre Rup Temple (961), East Mebon Temple (953), and Banteay Kdei Temple, etc. 
Down south in Phnom Penh, there are several famous Buddhist sites and architectures. The Silver Pagoda, built at the end of the 19th century, is a colonial-era masterpiece of native Khmer style, adjacent to the Royal Palace. Wat Phnom is the namesake and symbol of the capital city of Phnom Penh. 

Europe

Europe

Although Buddhism spread throughout Asia, it had remained virtually unknown in the West until modern times. The early missions sent by the emperor Ashoka to the West did not bear fruit. European contact with Buddhism first began after Alexander the Great’s conquest of northwestern India in the 3rd century BC. Greek colonists in the region adopted Indian Buddhism and syncretized it with aspects of their own culture to make a sect called Greco-Buddhism which dominated the area of ancient India comprising modern day Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan for several centuries. Emperor Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to the Hellenistic world, where they established centers in places such as Alexandria, creating a noted presence in the region. Many prominent Hellenistic writers were well aware of Buddhist lore and tradition and wrote about it in detail. Some scholars believe that later Greek philosophers may have borrowed from the teachings of the Buddha and that Jesus Christ was influenced by certain principles. 

Although the Buddha’s teachings have been known in countries throughout Asia for over 2,500 years, very few people in Europe or America would have known Buddhism before  the 18th century. Buddhist attitudes of peace, mindfulness and care for all living creatures have come to be the concern of many groups in the West, so did the Buddhist attitude of “come and see for yourself”. In the eighteenth century onwards, a number of Buddhist texts were brought to Europe by people who had visited the colonies in the East. These texts aroused the interest of some European scholars who then began to study them. This may be called the discovery period of Buddhism in the West, during which the West was trying to find out and understand more about Buddhism. 
Although reports about Asian Buddhist beliefs and practices had been drifting back to Europe since the thirteenth century, a clear picture of Buddhism as a unitary whole did not take shape in Europe until the middle of the nineteenth century, just a little more than 150 years ago. Before then, the sundry reports that had reached scholars in Europe were generally haphazard, inaccurate, and conjectural, if not utterly fantastic. Around the middle of the nineteenth century, some Buddhist texts were translated into European languages. 
The first person to comprehend Buddhism as a unitary tradition and establish its historical origins was the brilliant French philologist Eugene Burnouf. Burnouf had studied Pali, Sanskrit, and Tibetan manuscripts that had been sent to him in Paris from the East. Based on these texts, with barely no other clues, he wrote his 600-page tome, Introduction to the History of Indian Buddhism (1844), in which he traced in detail Indian Buddhist history and surveyed its doctrines and texts. Though later generations of scholars have greatly expanded upon Burnouf’s work and filled in many missing pieces, they regard as essentially accurate the outline of Indian Buddhism he proposed in his groundbreaking study. 
Interests about Buddhism began circling among academic circles in modern Europe since the 1870s, with philosophers like Arthur Schopenhauer and Friedrich Nietzsche and esoteric-minded scholars such as Helena Blavatsky. By the early twentieth century, a large number of Buddhist texts had already been translated into English, French and German, including virtually the entire collection of Theravada scriptures as well as a number of important Mahayana texts. 
During this period, Buddhist organizations were founded in the major cities of Europe. The oldest and one of the largest of these, the Buddhist Society of London, was established in 1924. These organizations helped the growth of interest in Buddhism through their meditation sessions, lectures and circulation of Buddhist literature. 
The academic study of Buddhism initiated by these pioneers has continued through to the present time, despite the setback of two world wars and frequent shortages in funding. In Western universities and institutes, scholars map in ever finer details and with broader sweep the entire Buddhist heritage – from Sri Lanka to Mongolia, from Gandhara to Japan. 
The transition in Western Buddhism was facilitated by two main factors. One was the increasing number of Asian Buddhist teachers who traveled to the West – Theravada bhikkus, Japanese Zen masters, Tibetan lamas – either to give lectures and conduct retreats, or to settle there permanently and establish Buddhist centers. The second factor was the return to the West of the young Westerners who had trained in Asia in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and now came back to their home countries to spread the Dharma.
Popularization of Buddhism in the West began roughly in the 1960s and continues through to the present. Buddhism comes to exert its appeal on an increasing number of people of different lifestyles and its following proliferates rapidly. At beginning Buddhism was largely a counter-cultural phenomenon, adopted by those in rebellion against the crass materialism and technocratic obsessions of modern society: hippies, acid heads, disaffected university students, artists, writers, and anarchists. But as these youthful rebels gradually became integrated into the mainstream, they brought their Buddhism with them. 
Today Buddhism is espoused not only by those in the alternative culture, but by businessmen, physicists, computer programmers, housewives, real-estate agents, even by sports stars, movie actors, and rock musicians. Perhaps several hundred thousand Europeans have adopted Buddhism in one or another of its different forms, while many more quietly incorporate Buddhist practices into their daily lives. The presence of large Asian Buddhist communities in the West also enhances the visibility of the Dharma. Thousands of books on Buddhism are now available, dealing with the teachings at both scholarly and popular levels, while Buddhist magazines and journals expand their circulation each year. Buddhist influences subtly permeate various disciplines: philosophy and ecology, psychology and health care, the arts and literature, even Christian theology. Indeed, already three years ago Time magazine devoted a full-length cover story to the spread of Buddhism in America, and at least five books on the subject are in print. 
Today, all the major Buddhist traditions of Asia such as Theravada, Pure Land, Chan (or Zen), Vajrayana and Nichiren Shoshu, have a sizeable number of followers in Europe. 
Russia, and perhaps strangely, Austria are the only two European states today that recognize Buddhism as an “official”, though not necessarily “state religion” in their respective countries. On top of that, Russia also recognizes it, along with Islam, Judaism, and of course Orthodox Christianity, as native to Russian soil in the 1993 Constitution of the Russian Federation – all other religious groups are unrecognized, and must officially register and be subject to rejection by the state. Apart from Siberian Buddhist nations, the Kalmyk people’s 17th century migration into Europe has made them today’s only traditionally Buddhist nation west of the Ural. They now live in the Republic of Kalmykia, a Russian Republic.
Estimated numbers of Buddhists in European Countries in 2000



Austria 
Buddhism is a legally recognized religion in Austria and it is followed by more than 10,000 Austrians. Although still small in absolute numbers (10,402 at the 2001 census), Buddhism in Austria enjoys widespread acceptance if not popularity. A majority of Buddhists in the country are Austrian nationals (some of them naturalized after immigration from Asia, predominantly from the People’s Republic of China and Vietnam), while a considerable number of them are foreign nationals. 
As in most European countries, different branches and schools of Buddhism are represented by groups of varying sizes. Vienna not only has the largest number of foreign residents, but is also the place with the longest tradition of Buddhism in the country. Most of Austria’s Buddhist temples and centers of practice can be found there; some with a specific Chinese, Vietnamese, Tibetan or Japanese appearance. The latest development has been the establishment of a “Buddhist Cemetery” around a stupa-like building for funeral ceremonies at the Vienna Central Cemetery. 
Buddhism was officially recognized under Austrian law in 1983. Russia is the only other “European” country to forwardly recognize Buddhism as “native” to its own soil, giving it official status, along with Orthodox Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. 
By the late 19th century, due to the influence of Arthur Schopenhauer and Richard Wagner, artists and intellectuals in the capital city of the Austro-Hungarian Empire started to take interest in Buddhism. Karl Eugen Neumann (1865-1915), who had met the composer Wagner in his father’s house, took great interest in what he had heard about Buddhism. In 1884 he decided to become a Buddhist and study the original languages to be able “to see for himself”. He managed to translate large parts of the Pali Canon into German before dying in Vienna at the age of fifty. 
In 1913 in Java, a man from Graz became the first recorded Austrian to be ordained as Buddhist monk, taking the name Bhikku Sono. 
1923 saw the foundation of a “Buddhist Society” in Vienna and Austrians were among the participants at the 2nd International Buddhist Congress in Paris in 1937. The political situation — an alliance between the Fascist regime and the Catholic Church from 1933 to 1938 followed by Hitler’s conquest of Austria and the Second World War — was highly unfavorable to the development of Austrian Buddhism. 
In 1949 the “Buddhist Society of Vienna” was founded and interest for Buddhism started to flourish again. Buddhism took a step out of literary and intellectual circles toward daily life. The late 1970s saw establishment of Dannebergplatz, the first Buddhist Center in Vienna; the purchase of a rural property intended to become a retreat center (Buddhist Center Scheibbs); and the establishment of the first Buddhist Association outside Vienna (the Salzburg Buddhist Association). Hemaloka Thero, Geshe Rabten, the 16th Karmapa, the 14th Dalai Lama, and other eminent representatives from different Buddhist traditions visited the country, gave talks, and attracted dharma students. 
In 1979, Genro Koudela, who was ordained as a Zen priest in California by Joshu Sasaki, returned to Vienna, his city of origin, and established the “Bodhidharma Zendo”. The new Buddhist Center at Fleischmarkt, in the very center of Vienna, became the home for Zen, Kagyu and Theravada groups. 
When official recognition was granted by the government in early 1983, a new era of Austrian Buddhism was ushered in. A widely visible “Peace Stupa” was opened at the banks of the river Danube and a retreat and study center, Letzehof, affiliated with the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism was opened in the western province of Vorarlberg. Vanja Palmers, a Zen monk of the Japanese Soto school, and Brother David Steindl-Rast, an Austrian-American Bendedictine monk, founded a retreat center high up in the Salzburg alpine region. The first center in the south of the country, a retreat center in the Burmese Theravada tradition was established in the early 1990s. 
In 1993, Austria hosted an annual general meeting of the European Buddhist Union, which drew participants from a dozen European countries. A series of visits to the city of Graz by the Dalai Lama in 1995, 1998 (for the consecration of a large stupa), and in 2002 (to speak on “Kalachakra for World Peace”) became a strong encouragement for Buddhists in Austria. 
Official recognition also opened the doors for Buddhist religious education at schools. In 1993, the first few groups of Buddhist children were given the chance to hear about the Buddha dharma on a regular basis as part of their syllabus. Twelve years after the project was started in the cities of Vienna, Graz and Salzburg, Buddhist religious education is being made available to school children of all age groups (6 to 19) at different types of schools in all of nine federal provinces of the Republic. A Teachers’ Training Academy was founded in 2001 to offer in-service teacher training for the teachers concerned. 
France
Buddhism is widely reported to be the fourth largest religion in France, after Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. 
France has over two hundred Buddhist meditation centers, including about twenty sizable retreat centers in rural areas. The Buddhist population mainly consists of Chinese and Vietnamese immigrants, with a substantial minority of native French converts and “sympathizers.” The rising popularity of Buddhism in France has been the subject of considerable discussion in the French media and academy in recent years. 
In the early 1990s, the French Buddhist Union (UBF, founded in 1986) estimated there to be 600,000 to 650,000 Buddhists in France, with 150,000 French converts among them. In 1999, sociologist Frédéric Lenoir estimated there are 10,000 converts and up to 5 million “sympathizers,” although other researchers have questioned these numbers. A 1997 opinion poll counted as sympathizers young people who feel “an intellectual affinity with Buddhism or expressed a sympathy to a Buddhist worldview.” 
Alexandra David-Néel was an important early French Buddhist. She is most known for her visit to the city of Lhasa, capital of Tibet (1924) and wrote more than 30 books, about Buddhism, philosophy, and her travels. In 1911 Alexandra traveled for the second time to India, to further her study of Buddhism. She was invited to the royal monastery of Sikkim, where she met Maharaj Kumar (crown prince) Sidkeon Tulku. She became Sidkeong’s “confidante and spiritual sister” (according to Ruth Middleton), perhaps his lover (Foster & Foster). She also met the thirteenth Dalai Lama twice in 1912, and had the opportunity to ask him many questions about Buddhism—a feat unprecedented for a European woman at that time. 
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Buddhist teachers of various traditions began to visit France. Taisen Deshimaru was a Japanese Zen Buddhist who founded numerous dojos in France. Thich Nhat Hanh, a Nobel Peace Prize-nominated, Vietnamese-born Zen Buddhist, founded the Unified Buddhist Church (Eglise Bouddhique Unifieé) in France in 1969. Plum Village, a monastery and retreat center in the Dordogne in southern France, is his residence and the headquarters of his international sangha.
By the late 1990s, it has been estimated that there are more than 140 Tibetan Buddhist mediation centers in France. The first Tibetan Buddhist communities in France were established in the early 1970s. Growth was catalyzed by visits, in 1973 and 1974 respectively, of the Karmapa and Dalai Lama, two of the highest lamas. In 1975, Dudjom Rinpoche and Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche, also very high lamas, visited Dordogne, where they established retreat centers with the help of Pema Wangyal Rinpoche. Pema Wangyal Rinpoche is the son of Kangyur Rinpoche, another high lama who was among the first to take western disciples. 
Kalu Rinpoche, also a highly esteemed lama, led the first tradition three-year retreat for westerners in France starting in 1976. In the Kagyu lineage such retreats confer the title “lama” on those who complete them. It is estimated that sixty percent of the centers and monasteries in France are affiliated with the Kagyu school. 
There are about twenty retreat centers representing all the different schools as well as many town-based centers which are under the direction of great Tibetan Buddhist masters. Dhagpo Kundreul Ling in Auvergne is said to be the biggest Buddhist monastery outside of Asia. 
Some of the larger retreat centers are:
• Dashang Kagyu Ling (Temple Des Milles Boudhas) in Bourgogne (founded by Kalu Rinpoche) 
• Dechen Chöling in Limousin (founded by Sakyong Mipham Rinpoche) 
• Dhagpo Dargye Lin in Archignac (founded by Shamar Rinpoche) 
• Dhagpo Dedrol Ling in Plazac (founded by Gendun Rinpoche) 
• Dhagpo Kundreul Ling in Auvergne (founded by Gendun Rinpoche) 
• Dhagpo Kagyu Ling in Chanteloube (founded by Gendun Rinpoche) 
• Drukpa Plouray Pel Drukpay Tcheutsok in Brittany (founded by the Gyalwang Drukpa) 
• Karma Kagyu Tendar Ling in Dordogne ((founded by Karmapa Orgyen Trinley Dorje) 
• Karma Ling in Savoie (founded by Kalu Rinpoche) 
• Karma Mingyur Ling in Isère (Montchardon) (founded by Lama Tonsang) 
• Institut Vajra Yogini in the Tarn department (Lavaur) 
• Lerab Ling in Languedoc-Roussillon (founded by Sogyal Rinpoche) 
• Orgyen Samye Chöling (Laugeral) in Dordogne (founded by Dudjom Rinpoche) 
• Shechen Tennyi Dargyeling (La Sonnerie) in Dordogne (founded by Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche) 
Monasticism has traditionally been the bedrock of Tibetan Buddhism, but there were only a few dozen ordained French monks and nuns until the mid-1990s. However, there are now at least 300, most of which were trained at the two monasteries in Auvergne. 
The most famous French monk in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition is Matthieu Ricard, a longtime student of Dilgo Khyenste Rinpoche who is the son of famous philosopher Jean-Francois Revel. He has published books on Buddhism which have contributed to interest in Buddhism and French Buddhists among the intelligentsia. 
“Buddhist Voices,” a weekly French TV program, draws about 250,000 viewers, according to the Buddhist Union of France. 
Philosopher Luc Ferry, appointed Minister of Youth and Education in 2002, published an article in Le Point magazine in which he wrote, “Why this Buddhist wave? And why particularly in France, a very Catholic country in the past? ... In this time of de-Christianization, Buddhism has furnished to the West a rich and interesting alternative.” 
Britain
According to the 2001 census there are 151,816 Buddhists in Britain. However, that does not take into account those who regard themselves as Buddhists as well as Christians, or Jews, or Taoists, or anything else. The census form made no provision for such people to be counted. There are also those who refuse to label themselves as Buddhists because it runs counter to the principle of selflessness or egolessness. They prefer to thinking of themselves as free spirits. Irrespective of how many Buddhists there are in Britain today, there is unquestionably a growing interest. 
Buddhism first found its way into Britain in the 19th century through translations of scriptures from the various schools in different parts of the east. In 1879 Sir Edwin Arnold compiled an epic poem, The Light of Asia, describing the Buddha’s life. This was to become a classic and is still in print today. 
The limited number of books available in early years was enough to inspire a few to begin actually practising Buddhism as a way of life. One of those, Allan Bennett, went to Sri Lanka in 1898 and returned as Ananda Metteyya, the first Englishman to be ordained as a Buddhist monk (Bhikkhu) of the Theravada tradition. 
In 1907 a number of people got together and formed The Buddhist Society of Great Britain and Ireland. This was succeeded in 1924 by The London Buddhist Society, founded by Christmas Humphreys. It was the first really successful organisation in Britain to provide a platform for all schools and traditions of Buddhism. It stood alone for almost fifty years as the focal point for Buddhists in Britain. 
The main differences between British Buddhism and Buddhism in East countries are cultural. A few temples and monasteries in Britain almost entirely replicate their counterparts in the east. If one were to go to Wat Buddhapadipa in Wimbledon, in London, for example, there would be very little to distinguish it from a temple in Thailand. Even so, there will be differences. 
It is unlikely that a Theravadan monk from Southeast Asia or Sri Lanka, for example, would be able to walk down a road in Britain in his saffron robes carrying an alms bowl, without getting some kind of surprised reaction from passers-by. And it is extremely unlikely that anyone would actually put food into that bowl for his daily meal, as is customary in the east. In Britain, therefore, food is taken to the temples by supporters, or cooked on site. 
Whatever the tradition of Buddhism in Britain, however, the teaching has generally remained faithful to its origins. It could be said, therefore, that the essence of Buddhism, its practices, and teachings, are the same in Britain as in the east, but not necessarily its cultural customs. 
Buddhism does not demand a commitment to it alone, to the exclusion of anything else, and there are many who happily harmonize more than one faith or way of life within themselves. For example, there are westerners of the Judaeo-Christian traditions who maintain their faith yet supplement it with the practice of Buddhist meditation. 
The types of Buddhism practiced around the world can be vastly different. Buddhism has been evolving and developing over twenty-five centuries in a variety of cultures. There have been temples, monasteries and centers of all kinds set up in Britain over the last hundred years. Some of these have their roots in Sri Lanka, China, Korea, Japan, Southeast Asia and Tibet. 
A few of these centers have been established specifically to serve their own ethnic communities, though they are generally open to everyone. The monk or nun incumbents will probably engage in daily devotions and practices, as well as giving teachings, blessings and ceremonies for the laity. 
There are also centers that combine particular Buddhist practices and traditions with a western culture. Westerners who have been ordained in Japan or Thailand, for example, have returned to the west to set up training monasteries in Britain. These centers regard themselves as inheritors of authentic traditions. Inevitably, however, cultural adjustments have been made. Some chanting might be in English, for instance, and the sexes are treated on a more equal footing. 
Yet other groups in Britain are principally concerned with the practice of meditation, while paying little attention to the rest of the Buddhist teachings or cultural trappings. They do not chant, bow, or have much by way of Buddha-statues, for example. Neither do they emphasize the study of scriptures. They rather stress the basic meditation techniques of mindfulness and awareness in daily life. 
There is no principal Buddhist Society or group in Britain, nor one which can speak for Buddhists as a whole, though attempts have and are being made to create such a body. 
Amaravati Buddhist Monastery, Hertfordshire. This is one of a group of monasteries founded in 1979 by Ajahn Sumedho, an American-born Theravadan monk of the Thai Forest tradition. Amaravati houses both monks and nuns, has a retreat center for lay people, a library, and is open to visitors for occasional talks and personal practice. 
The Buddhist Society, London. One of the first Buddhist organizations in Britain founded in 1924 by the late Christmas Humphreys, QC. It offers talks and classes on all schools of Buddhism and has a library. 
Jamyang Buddhist Center, London. A Tibetan organization of the Gelugpa tradition, under the direction of Geshe Tashi Tsering. Courses of study and practice are taught at all levels. 
Kagyu Samye Ling Tibetan Center, Dumfriesshire. A center founded in 1967 by two refugee Tibetan abbots, now under the guidance of Dr Akong Tulku Rinpoche and Lama Yeshe Losal. This is a monastery as well as an active center offering courses of study in Buddhism as well as other topics. 
Throssel Hole Buddhist Abbey, Northumberland. A training monastery of the Japanese Soto Zen tradition, founded in 1972 by an Englishwoman, the late Rev. Jiyu-Kennett, and now under the direction of Rev. Daishin Morgan. It is open to lay guests. 
Wat Buddhapadipa Temple, Wimbledon, London. This was the first Buddhist temple in the United Kingdom. It was set up with the objective of creating a center for the dissemination of theoretical and practical Buddhist teachings in Europe. 
Germany 
Buddhism in Germany looks back to a history of over 150 years. Arthur Schopenhauer was one of the earliest Germans who were influenced by Buddhism. Schopenhauer got his knowledge of Buddhism from authors like Isaac Jacob Schmidt (1779-1847). German Buddhists or Orientalists like Karl Eugen Neumann, Paul Dahlke, Georg Grimm, Friedrich Zimmermann (Subhadra Bhikschu) and the first German Buddhist monk Nyanatiloka were also influenced by Schopenhauer and his understanding of Buddhism. But also German Indologists like Hermann Oldenberg and his work “Buddha, sein Leben, seine Lehre, seine Gemeinde” had an important influence on German Buddhism. 
In 1888 Subhadra Bickshu (Friedrich Zimmermann) published the first edition of the “Buddhistischen Katechismus”, a work based on the “Buddhist Catechism” of Henry Steel Olcott. 
In 1903 the first German Buddhist organization was founded by the Indologist Karl Seidenstücker in Leipzig. In 1904 Florus Anton Gueth became the Theravada monk Nyanatiloka. Some important Pali texts were translated into German in the early part of the 20th century by scholars like Karl Eugen Neumann (1865-1915), Nyantiloka and others. 
In 1922 Hermann Hesse published his famous work “Siddhartha”, which has been translated into many languages. 
In 1924 Dr. Paul Dahlke established the first German Buddhist monastery, the “Buddhistische Haus” in Berlin. 
The German Dharmaduta Society, initially known as the Lanka Dhammaduta Society and dedicated to spreading the message of the Buddha in Germany and other Western countries, was founded in 1952. 
In 1957 The German Dharmaduta Society purchased the premises of “Das Buddhistische Haus” from the heirs of Dr. Dahlke. It is now a Center for the spread of Theravâda Buddhism in Europe. The German authorities have designated it, as the oldest Buddhist institution in Europe), a National Heritage site. 
Switzerland 
According to the 2,000 census of Switzerland, 21,305 Swiss residents (0.29% of the total population) self-identified as Buddhists. About a third of them were born in Thailand. 
In 1978 the Swiss Buddhist Union was founded by the Czech Buddhist Mirko Fryba (Bhikku Kusalananda). 
The German Buddhist Nyanatiloka was an important early Buddhist in Switzerland, who planned to found a Buddhist monastery in Switzerland. The writings of Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung have many allusions to Buddhism. Max Ladner founded a Buddhist group in Zurich in 1942. In 1948, Ladner published the Buddhist journal “Die Einsicht”. Geshe Rabten Rinpoche founded in 1977 in Mont-Pèlerin a Buddhist monastery and study center for European monks. There are also Tibetan-Buddhist and Zen monasteries in Switzerland. 
In earlier censuses, Buddhism figured together with other non-Abrahamic traditions (mainly Hinduism) as “other churches and communities”. These accounted for 0.12% in 1970, 0.19% in 1980, 0.42% in 1990 and 0.78% in 2000 (0.38% Hinduism, 0.29% Buddhism, 0.11% other). 

Han Chinese

China

During China’s more than 5000-year history of lasting civilization, Buddhism is an important religion in this country and one of the three major schools of thought along with Confucianism and Taoism. It has affected and been affected by Chinese culture, politics, literature and philosophy for almost two millennia. 

Buddhism was introduced from India during the Han Dynasty and has been very popular among Chinese of all walks of life, admired by commoners, and sponsored by emperors. Buddhism today has grown quite popular as well as gaining support from the government more than any other religion in China. It is the largest organized faith in the country. Estimates of the number of Buddhists in China range from 280 million to 350 million, from 20% to 25% of the Chinese population, thus making China the country with the most Buddhist adherents in the world, ahead of Japan. Due to statistical reasons, however, it’s quite hard to get the exact even a rough number of Buddhists in China. Generally speaking, the number of Buddhists in China in a strict sense is estimated to be fewer than 100 million people. 
The early transmission of Buddhism into China was via the Silk Road from China to central Asia. It was started in the 1st century AD with a semi-legendary account of an embassy sent to the West by the Chinese Emperor Ming (58–75 AD) of the Han Dynasty. Extensive contacts started in the 2nd century AD, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan Empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim Basin, with the missionary efforts of a great number of Central Asian Buddhist monks to Chinese lands. The first missionaries and translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were Parthian, Kushan, Sogdian or Kuchean. 
The first contacts between China and Central Asia occurred with the opening of the Silk Road in the 2nd century BC. “Records of the Great Historian” describes the travels of the Chinese explorer Zhang Qian to Central Asia around 130 BC, who reports about a country named Shendu (India), whose peaceful Buddhist ways are mentioned in writing in the 1st century Han history, the Hanshu. 
After 130 BC, numerous embassies to the West followed Zhang Qian’s travels, and there may have been some contacts with Buddhism around that time. Chinese murals in the Tarim Basin city of Dunhuang describe the Emperor Han Wudi (156-87 BC) worshipping Buddhist statues, “golden men brought in 120 BC by a great Han general in his campaigns against the nomads”. However, there is no such mention of Han Wudi worshipping the Buddha in Chinese historical literature. The Hou Hanshu also records the visit of Yuezhi envoys to the Chinese capital in 2 BC, who gave oral teachings on Buddhist sutras, suggesting that some Yuezhi had already started to disseminate the Buddhist faith in eastern Asia during the 1st century BC. The Hou Hanshu describes the enquiry about Buddhism made around 70 AD by the emperor Ming (58-75 AD) that he had a dream about the Buddha and sent an envoy to Tianzhu (name of ancient India in Chinese) to discover the its true doctrine. This encounter is also described in a 6th-century account by Yang Xuanzhi. 
These Chinese emissaries are believed to have visited the country of the Yuezhi and brought back two missionaries named Dharmaraksa and Kasyapa Matanga (also called Moton and Chufarlan), together with sutras written with 600,000 Sanskrit words. The two missionaries wrote “The Sutra of forty-two sections spoken by the Buddha”, to provide guidance on the ideas of Buddhism and the conduct of monks. It is the first Buddhist text in the Chinese language, although its authenticity is a matter of debate. 
Their arrival in 67 AD marks Buddhism’s official introduction in China. Historians generally agree that by the middle of the 1st century, the religion had penetrated to areas north of the Huai River. Emperor Ming’s brother Liu Ying, the Prince of Chu, was the first high-profile believer of Buddhism, although there is some evidence that Emperor Ming himself might have been as well. 
The first documented transmission of Buddhist scriptures to China occurs in 148 AD, with the arrival of the Parthian missionary An Shih Kao in China. An Shi Kao established Buddhist temples in Loyang and organized the translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, testifying to the beginning of a wave of Central Asian Buddhist proselytism that was to last several centuries. Traces of Buddhist iconography can also be seen in works of art from this period. 
Following mid-2nd century AD, cultural exchanges greatly increased with expansions of Kushan Empire eastward and Han Dynasty westward, and Central-Asian Buddhist missionaries became active shortly after in the Chinese capital cities of Loyang and sometimes Nanjing, where they particularly distinguished themselves by their translation work. Hinayana and Mahayana were both promoted. Thirty-seven works of Buddhist texts translated into Chinese by early translators are known today. To name a few among them: An Shih Kao, a Parthian prince who made the first known translations of Hinayana texts (148-170); Lokaksema, a Kushan who first translated Mahayana scriptures (167-186); Zhi Yao (c. 185), a Kushan monk and second generation of translators after Lokaksema; Zhi Qian (220-252), a Kushan monk whose grandfather had settled in China during 168-190.
The early translators had some difficulty in finding the exact words to explain Buddhist concepts in Chinese, so they often used Taoist terms in their translations. As a result, people began to relate Buddhism with the existing Taoist tradition. It was only later on that the Chinese came to fully understand the teachings of the Buddha. 

Kumarajiva, a Kuchean monk, was one of the most important translators in the period. Kumarajiva was brought to China from Kui-tsi. The former translations of the Buddhist sacred books were to a great extent erroneous. To produce them in a form more accurate and complete was the task undertaken by the learned Buddhist, at the desire of the emperor. More than eight hundred priests were called to assist, and the emperor himself, an ardent disciple of the new faith, was present at the conference, holding the old copies in his hand as the work of correction proceeded. More than three hundred volumes were thus prepared. 

Central Asian missionary efforts along the Silk Road were accompanied by a flux of artistic influences, visible in the development of Serindian art from the 2nd through the 11th century AD in the Tarim Basin, modern Xinjiang. Serindian art often derives from the art of the Greco-Buddhist art of the Gandhara district in today’s Pakistan, combining Indian, Greek and Roman influences. Highly sinicized forms of this syncretism can also be found on the eastern portions of the Tarim Basin, such as in Dunhuang. Silk Road artistic influences can be found as far as Japan to this day, in architectural motifs or representations of Japanese gods. 
Among the Chinese monks in the fourth century, Dao-an was the most outstanding. Though he had to move from place to place because of the political strife, he not only wrote and lectured extensively, but also prepared the first catalogues of them. He invited the famous translator, Kumarajiva, from Kucha. With the help of Do-an’s disciples, Kumarjiva translated a large number of important texts and revised the earlier Chinese translations. His fine translations are still in use to this day. Because of political unrest, Kumarkiva’s disciples were later dispersed and this helped to spread Buddhism to other parts of China. 
From the 4th century onward, Chinese pilgrims started to travel to India by themselves in order to get improved access to the original scriptures. According to Chinese sources, the first Chinese ordained was Zhu Zixing. He went to Central Asia in 260 (also thought 290 by some) to seek out Buddhism, then Northern India for Buddhist books, and he obtained a sutra of ninety sections there. He translated it with the title meaning “Light-emitting Prajna Sutra”. 
It is only from the 4th century AD that Chinese Buddhist monks started to travel to India to discover Buddhism first-hand. Fa-hsien’s pilgrimage to India (395-414) is said to have been the first significant one. He left along the Silk Road, stayed 6 years in India, and then returned by the sea route. His book, the Account of Buddhist Kingdoms, is the oldest one of similar works preserved today, perhaps the most interesting and valuable one. 
It describes the flourishing condition of Buddhism in the steppes of Tartary, the tribes residing west of the Caspian Sea, in Afghanistan where the language and customs of Central India then prevailed, and the other lands watered by the Indus and its tributary rivers, in Central India and in Ceylon. After 15 years of journey, Fa-hsien returned to China. At the request of Kumarajiva, his religious instructor, he published his travels. The earnestness and vigor of the Chinese Buddhists at that early period, is shown sufficiently by the repeated journeys that they made along the tedious and dangerous route by Central Asia to India. Tens of Chinese monks, possibly hundreds of them, visited India during that period. 
The most famous of the Chinese pilgrims is Xuan Zang (629-644). His large, precise, and elegant translation defines a “new translation period”, in contrast with older Central Asian works. He also left a detailed account of his travels in Central Asia and India, which had already become an important source for ancient India research. 
Buddhism in Central Asia started to decline in the 7th century with the expansion of Islam there. The vigorous Chinese culture progressively absorbed Buddhist teachings until a strongly Chinese particularism developed. Central Asian Buddhist monks from the Tarim Basin and East Asian Buddhist monks appear to have maintained strong exchanges until around the 10th century, as shown by frescos from the Tarim Basin. 

In the early period of Buddhism’s introduction into China, most of the Chinese gentry were indifferent to the Central Asian travelers and their religion. Not only was their religion unknown, but much of it seemed alien and amoral to Chinese sensibilities. Concepts such as monasticism and individual spiritual enlightenment directly contradicted the core Confucian principles of family and emperor. Confucianism promoted social stability, order, strong families, and practical living. Chinese officials questioned how a monk’s personal attainment of nirvana benefited the empire. Buddhism was less antithetical to Daoism, the other major religion of China. Indeed, upon first encountering Buddhism, many Chinese scholars regarded it as merely a foreign equivalent of Daoism. 

In 526, Bodhidharma, after having grown old in Southern India, reached Canton by sea. He was received with honor and immediately invited to Nanking, the capital of Liang Wu-ti. The enquiry of emperor to Bodhidharma reflected his ignorance but mere interests to the new faith. Bodhidharma, unsatisfied with the result of his interview with royalty, crossed the Yang-tsze River into the Wei kingdom and remained at Luo Yang. Legend has it that he sat facing to a wall for nine years. People called him the “Wall-gazing Brahman.” Hearing about those, the Liang emperor repented and sent messengers to invite the Indian sage to return. But the errand failed. 
To thrive in China, Buddhism had to transform itself into a system that could exist within the Chinese way of life. Thus, highly regarded Indian sutras that advocated filial piety became core texts in China. Buddhism was made compatible with ancestor worship and participation in China’s hierarchical system. Works were written arguing that the salvation of an individual was a benefit to that individual’s society and family and monks thus contributed to the greater good. 
It is conjectured that the collapse of the Han Dynasty in 220 and the resulting period of social upheaval and political unrest known as the Three Kingdoms period may have helped the spread of Buddhism. Buddhism was a minor force, however, compared with Daoism which was directly associated with efforts to defy the emperor. Despite the war and unrest, the translations of the Buddhist texts continued. During this time, both foreign and Chinese monks were actively involved in establishing monasteries and lecturing on the Buddhist teachings. 
A reason for the lack of interest mostly stemmed from the ruling entity and gentry. All the rulers were Han ethnic Chinese and had simply never heard of or knew too little of the religion. The Nine-grade controller system, by which prominent individuals in each local administrative area were given the authority to rank local families and individuals in nine grades according to their potential for government service, further consolidated the importance of Confucianism. Daoism too remained a strong force among the population and philosophers. 
Subsequent chaotic periods of Sixteen Kingdoms and Southern and Northern Dynasties changed the situation, resulting in state support of Buddhism. Most rulers and population of the Wu, Hu, and the Northern dynasties originated from more than ten distinct ethnic groups including either non-Han Chinese “barbarians”, or Han Chinese after generations of “barbarian” influence. They did not propagate nor trust the combined philosophical concept of Confucianism and Daoism as zealously as their rivals in the south. Official support of Buddhism would eventually mould a new Chinese populace with a common ideology out of the diversely ethnic population, which would in turn consolidate these dynasties. 
From the beginning of the fifth century to around the end of the sixth century, northern and southern China came under separate rule. The south remained under native dynasties while the north was controlled by non-Chinese ethnic rulers. The Buddhists in southern China continued to translate Buddhist texts and to lecture and write commentaries on the major texts. Their rulers were devout Buddhists who saw to the construction of numerous temples, participated in Buddhist ceremonies and organized public talks on Buddhism. In northern China, except for two short periods of persecution, Buddhism flourished under the lavish royal patronage of rulers who favored the religion. By the latter half of the sixth century, monks were employed in government posts. 
During this period, Buddhism propagated faster in northern China than in the south. Social upheaval in northern China worked to break down cultural barriers between the elite ruling families and the general populace, in contrast to the south where elite clans and royal families firmly monopolized politics. Daoist and Confucian political ideology had long consolidated the political status of elite clans in the south. Support of another religion would have unknown and possibly adverse effects, for which these clans would not risk their privileges. Furthermore, pro-Buddhist policy would not be backed by the bureaucracy, which had been staffed by members of the clans. Southern rulers were in weaker positions to strive for their legitimacy – some were even installed by the clans. It was not until the reign of Emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty that saw the official support of Buddhism. Rebellion of Hou Jing near the end of Emperor Wu’s reign wreaked havoc on the political and social privileges of the elite clans, which indirectly assisted the spread of Buddhism. But Buddhism spread pretty well in the peasant populace, both in the north and the south. 
Arrivals of several prestigious monks in the early 5th century also contributed to the propagation of the religion and were welcomed by rulers of the Sixteen Kingdoms and Northern Dynasties. Fo Tu Cheng was entrusted by the tyrant Shi Hu of Later Chao. Kumarajiva was invited by Lü Guang, the founder of Later Liang, and later by Yao Xing, second ruler of Later Qin. Biographies of these monks, among others, were the subject of the Memoirs of Eminent Monks. At the beginning of the sixth century, the number of people in China from India and other Buddhist countries was more than three thousand. 
The direct experiential impact of contact with practicing monks should not be underestimated. Confucianism had no equivalent to holy men — the archetypical best and brightest was a wise government minister, not a saint. Daoist priests were more immediate, but given to relativism. Through the actions and example of monks, Buddhists successfully laid claim to the high moral ground in society. 
With the rise of the Tang Dynasty at the beginning of the seventh century, Buddhism reached out to more and more people. It soon became an important part of Chinese culture and had great influence on Chinese Art, Literature, Sculpture, Architecture and the Philosophy of that time. 
By then the number of Chinese translations of Buddhist texts had increased tremendously. The Buddhists were now faced with the problem of how to put their teachings into practice. As a result, a number of schools of Buddhism arose, with each school concentrating on certain texts for their study and practice. The Tian-tai school, for instance, developed a system of teaching and practice based on the Lotus Sutra. It also arranged all the Buddhist texts into graded categories to suit the varying aptitude of the followers. 
Other schools arose which focused on different areas of the Buddha’s teachings. The two most prominent schools were the Chan and the Pure Land schools. The Ch’an school emphasized the practice of meditation as the direct way of gaining insight and experiencing Enlightenment in this very life. 
The Pure Land school centers its practices on the recitation of the name of Amitabha Buddha. The practice is based on the sermon which teaches that people could be reborn in the Western Paradise (Pure Land) of Amitabha Buddha if they recite his name and have sincere faith in him. Once in the Pure Land, the devotees are said to be able to achieve Enlightenment more easily. Because of the simplicity of its practice, this school became popular especially among the masses throughout China.
In all these ways Buddhism became a major religion in China. By the start of the 6th century, Buddhism had grown in popularity to rival Daoism. It is known that Buddhism was successful because the monks were soon accused of falling into extravagance and eventually their lands and properties confiscated by Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou Dynasty and Wuzong of the Tang Dynasty. 
During the early Tang Dynasty, the monk Xuan Zang journeyed to Nalanda in India and other important sites to bring back scriptures. He sought to expand influence of Mahayana over Theravada, though the Yogacara school he preferred to differs significantly from the later Chinese Mahayana schools that developed such as Pure Land. The Tang capital of Chang’an (today’s Xi’an) became an important center for Buddhist thought. From there Buddhism spread to Korea, and Japanese embassies of Kentoshi helped gain footholds in Japan. Buddhist ideology began to merge with Confucianism and Daoism, due in part to the use of existing Chinese philosophical terms in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Various Confucian scholars of the Song Dynasty, including Zhu Xi, sought to redefine Confucianism as Neo-Confucianism. 
The popularization of Buddhism in this period is evident in the many scripture-filled caves and structures surviving today. The Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu province, the Longmen Grottoes near Luoyang in Henan and the Yungang Grottoes near Datong in Shanxi are the most renowned of the Northern, Sui and Tang Dynasties. The Leshan Giant Buddha, carved out of a hillside in the 8th century during the Tang Dynasty and looking down on the confluence of three rivers, is still the largest stone Buddha statue in the world. As a side note, duplications of Buddhist texts were considered to bring meritorious karma. Printing from individually carved wooden blocks, from movable clay type and from movable metal type, proved much more efficient and eventually eclipsed hand copying. The Diamond Sutra printed in 868, a Buddhist scripture discovered in 1907 inside the Mogao Caves, was the first dated example of block printing. 
By the end of the Tang Dynasty, there already had been many schools of Buddhism incorporating Buddhist thoughts with traditional Chinese philosophy. The principal ones were: 
The Vinaya School (Lu-tsung). As the name suggests, this school concentrated on monastic disciplines (Vinaya) of the Buddhist monks and adhered strictly to what’s prescribed for them in the Vinaya Pitaka. This school was said to have been founded by Tao-hsuan in the 7th Century AD.  
The Realistic School (Chu-she). This school derived its inspiration from the Abhidhamma Kosha of Vasubhandu (316-396), a Peshawar based Indian monk who was originally a Sarvasthivadin and was faithful to the original teachings of the Buddha. In course of time it became a part of the later-day Idealist school. 
The Three Treatises School (San-lun). This school followed the teachings of the Madhyamika sutras of the famous south Indian Buddhist monk, Nagarjuna, who is remembered by history for his Sunyavada or the theory of Absolute Emptiness. His approach to the notions of reality was akin to the Upanishadic idea of non-self and the doctrines of the Advaita or non dualistic schools of Hinduism. His ideas were brought to China by Kumarajiva (549-623) through the translation of the Sutras, which were later expounded in the form of commentaries by Chih-Tsang (549-623). Chih-Tsnag argued in one of his works that it would be possible to understand metaphysical truths only through negation of things in view of the limitations of the mind to understand transcendental reality. This school also derived its inspiration from the Shata Shastra (The treaties of Hundred Scriptures) of Aryadeva. With the emergence of the Idealistic school, this school suffered a decline. It was later revived in the 7th century AD by an Indian monk called Suryaprbhasa. 
The Idealist School (Fa-hsiang). This school was founded on the ideals of Yogachara school of Vasubhandu as expounded in his Vimsatika- Karika or the Book of Twenty Verses. The school became popular because of Hsuan-Tsang (596-664) who traveled to India in the 7th century AD to collect original Buddhist texts and bring them back to China. Hsuan Tsang was an adventurous monk who combined in himself the traits of a monk as well as inveterate traveler. Undaunted by the task ahead of him and driven by his goal to see the land of the Buddha, Hsuan-Tsang traveled to India by a circuitous route via the Silk Road through the perilous terrain of the north western frontiers, and reached the University of Nalanda in eastern India. He spent considerable time there in the study of the Yogachara philosophy under the guidance of a teacher called Silabhadra. From there he went to the court of the famous Indian king Harshavardhana, who was a powerful but generous ruler of his times and ruled parts of northern and eastern India. He developed a great liking for the Chinese monk and insisted him to stay in his court for several years. Hsuan-Tsang complied with the king’s request and stayed in his court for a few years before resuming his journey. He returned to China after many hardships, and managed to carry with him a huge collection of about 650 Buddhist texts and some Buddha relics. He spent the rest of his life in the translation of the texts and in spreading the teachings of Vasubhandu. Despite of the fact that the translations he arranged were not superior in quality, Hsuan-Tsang earned a place for himself in the history of China by his unique contribution to the development of Chinese Buddhism. Through his familiarity with the teachings of Vasubhandu, he made the Idealist School one of the most popular schools of Buddhism in ancient China. 
The Mantra or Tantric School (Mi-tsung or Chen-yen). This is the Chinese version of Tantric Buddhism. It flourished in China for less than a hundred years, starting with the arrival of Subhakarasimha (637-735) from India during the reign of the Tang Dynasty. Subhakarasimha translated the Mahavairochana Sutra which expounded the Tantric teachings. Two other monks who played a key role in the growth of Tantric Buddhism in China were Vajrabodhi (670-741) who introduced the concept of Mandalas to the Chinese, while Amoghavajra was said to have initiated three Tang emperors into Tantricism. The Tantric school of Buddhism believed in magic, incantations, drawing of mandalas, casting of spells and elaborate and often secret rituals. The school was later replaced by Lamaism, which was a more popular version of Tantricism. 
The Avatamsaka or Flower Adornment School (Hua Yen). This school flourished in China for about 200 years, starting from the 7th century AD and attracted the attention of the famous Empress Wu (690-705). It was based upon the teachings of the Buddha as contained in the Avatamsaka Sutra. The followers of this school believed that the sutra contained the most complex teachings of the Buddha, not comprehensible to ordinary followers. The Avatamsaka school expounded a cosmic view of the universe containing the two principal aspects of the reality, namely li and shih, an approach which is in some ways resembles the concept of Purusha (spiritual) and Prakriti (physical) of Hinduism, adopted later on by the Tantric schools. It also believed that in each and every aspect the cosmic reality reflected the same relationships and balance of forces, signifying the ultimate truth of one in all and all in one. The school was founded by Tu-shun, whose commentary of Avatamsaka, known as Ha-chieh Kuan, (Contemplating the Dharmadhatu) provided the necessary background for the emergence of this school in the Buddhist world. He was followed by four patriarchs, Chihyen (602-668), Fa-tsang (exact period unknown), Chiangling(738-838) and Tsung-mi (780-841). 
The Tian-tai or White Lotus School (Fa Hua). The White Lotus School also was based upon the highest teachings of the Buddha, but compared to the former, provided a more elaborate view of the cosmic reality. It was founded by a Chinese monk named Chih-i (538-597) who lived in Chekiang province of China, and formed his doctrines on the basis of the Saddharma-pundarika sutra, an ancient Buddhist text, which he believed to be the vehicle of all other truths. According to this school, Truth operated from three levels or aspects. At one extreme was the void or emptiness, the unknown or the non-self, about which nothing much could be speculated except talking in terms of negation and denial. At the other extreme was temporariness that was in reality nothingness but would manifest itself temporarily or momentarily because of the activity of the senses, as some kind of illusion or image on the film screen. The third level is a middle state, “middle” for our understanding, but not necessarily middle, “different” for our understanding but not necessarily different,  because it  unites the two and presents them together as the one Highest Truth. These three levels of truth are also not separate or different from each other. They are the aspects of the same reality that is universal as well as ubiquitous. The school advocated the practice of concentration and insight to understand the transience of things and attain the Buddha Mind in which the above mentioned three aspects of Truth reside in perfect harmony. Chih-i said to have become very popular during his life time and caught the attention of the emperor who donated the revenues of a district for the maintenance of his monastery. The While Lotus School was introduced into Japan in the 9th century and  became popular as Tendai. 
The Pure Land School (Jing Tu). It was founded by Hui-yuan (334-416), who was originally a Taoist. It was based upon the teachings of the Mahayana school and the belief in the Bodhisattvas. This school worshipped Amitabha and sought his grace for deliverance from this world under the notion that salvation could not be gained on one’s own efforts but with the help of the other power, the grace of Amitabha. The school practiced devotional forms of worship and regular chanting of O-mi-to-fo (the Chinese rendering of Amitabha) as the means to salvation. It followed the teachings contained in the Smaller and Larger Sukhavati-vyuha sutras. The school was subsequently introduced into Korea and Japan where it flourished under three different names. 
The Dhyana School (Chan). This was the most popular of the Chinese schools of Buddhism, popular in Japan and later in the west as Zen Buddhism. Chan was a “way of seeing into the nature of one’s own being.” Though it was introduced into China by an Indian monk by name Bodhidharma, around 520 AD, Chan was essentially a product of Chinese character, which unlike the Indian, evolved out of the practical and down to earth philosophy of life. Chan rejected book learning as the basis of enlightenment, set aside all notions and theories of suffering and salvation, and relied upon day to day events, simple thinking and ordinary living as the means to enlightenment. Enlightenment descended upon one as a sudden shift in awareness, not because of elaborate study of the Buddhist sutras, exposition of the philosophies, nor worship of the images of the Buddha but from a sudden shift in the paradigm, from an instantaneous chasm in the process of thought, from a kind of Eureka experience, characterized by a sudden opening of the mind and removal of a veil, after years of silent waiting and steady preparation. The Chan school discouraged the intellectual kind of pursuit of religion as it believed that any scholarly approach would tend to stiffen the mind and prevent it from experiencing the sudden flowering of Chan. 
Although the Chan masters did not encourage preoccupation with scriptural studies, they encouraged the initiates to study basic Chan scriptures like Lankavatarasutra, Vimalakritinirdesa, Vajracchedika Sutras and some additional Chan texts as part of preparation for the subsequent stages of observing into the nature of things. By denigrating the scriptural knowledge, the Chan masters therefore were not promoting illiteracy, but were preparing the students to free themselves from opinionated intellectuality and scholarly affectations to emerge into a world of notion less observations. 
The word “Chan” is a corrupt form of the Sanskrit word “dhyana” meaning concentrated meditation or contemplation. Dhyana was an essential aspect of Chan Buddhism aimed to develop inner stillness and accumulation of chi energy among the practitioners. But what Chan encouraged, more than the mechanical aspects of meditation, was the development of an unfettered and detached mind that would not cling to anything and would not rest anywhere and would flow with the flow of life, gathering nothing and gaining nothing. Chan Buddhism did not place too much emphasis on meditation, unlike the Zen Buddhism of Japan, but on finding the Buddha’s mind in the most mundane tasks and conversations of day to day life. In short, Chan made living a deeply religious act aimed to break the encrusted layers of thought. 
Chan Buddhism underwent a schism during the 7th century resulting in the formation of two rival school, a southern school led by Hui Neng and a northern school led by Shenhsiu. While the northern school disappeared over a period of time, the Southern school underwent further sub-divisions resulting in the formation of five Houses and seven sub-sects of which two survived. One was Lin-chi (Jap. Rinzai) and Tsao-tung (Jap.Soto). 
The thoughts of Chan influenced Chinese way of life profoundly. The Chan art became famous in ancient China for its spontaneity and simplicity of expression. But with the decline of Buddhism in China, Chan also gradually retreated into remote monasteries and gradually lost its appeal. 
By the end of the Tang Dynasty, almost all Buddhist scriptures had been translated into Chinese, and many catalogues had been compiled to collect the different translations of all the sutras. Other writings not included in the Tripitaka comprise a vast diversity of biographical, philosophical, encyclopedical and even poetry writings, some freely translated from the Sanskrit original, also existed in many Chinese Buddhist writings. 
The fall of Buddhism began during the reign of a Chinese Emperor Wu-Tsung (841-847). In the middle of the ninth century, Buddhism faced persecution by the Taoist emperor Tang Wu-tsung. He decreed demolition of monasteries, confiscation of temple land, return of monks and nuns to secular life and the destruction of Buddha images. Although the persecution lasted only a short time, it marked the end of an era for Buddhism in China. 4600 monasteries were destroyed, with 40,000 smaller Buddhist buildings. More than 260,000 priests and nuns were compelled to return to common employments. Following the demolition of monasteries and the dispersal of scholarly monks, a number of Chinese schools of Buddhism ceased to exist as separate movements, absorbed into the Ch’an and Pure Land schools which survived later. The eventual result was the emergence of a new form of Chinese Buddhist practice in the monastery. Besides practicing Ch’an meditation, Buddhist also recited the name of Amitabha Buddha and studied Buddhist texts. It is this form of Buddhism which survives to the present time. This persecution definitely reversed the fortunes of Buddhism in China and sowed the seeds of its decline. 
From 11th century onwards, China witnessed the reemergence of Confucianism and revival of people’s interest in their traditional religions. By their own excesses and neglect of their primary duties, the Buddhist monasteries became the contributory factors to the declining popularity of Buddhism. During the same period the Buddhism faced tremendous challenges from the increasing popularity of Brahmanism and the aggressive policies of the Islamic rulers of the Indian subcontinent. 

These new developments in the land of the Buddha had a direct impact on the fortunes of Buddhism in China since for a very long period the monks from the subcontinent provided a recurring source of inspiration and information to their brethren in China. This decline contributed greatly to the slackening of standards in the recruitment of monks and the emergence of some decadent schools of Buddhism. These schools deviated from the original rules prescribed by the Buddha for monastic discipline among the brethren and emphasized the need for exploring the lighter side of life in the practice of Buddhism instead of sorrow and suffering. One prominent example was the emergence of Pu-Tai, or the Laughing Buddha. He was but a decadent version of the exalted and highly revered Maitreyi Buddha. 

The Yuan Dynasty that came to power in 1280 adopted Lamaism as their state religion. It was the Tibetan version of Buddhism which gained ascendance in the mountainous country following the emergence of Vajrayana Buddhism in eastern India. During this period some secret schools of Buddhism also emerged in China. They believed in the future advent of Maitreya and the emergence of new world order. These schools practiced martial arts like Kungfu and sometimes indulged in the petty politics of the local warlords. 
There were not much of major development in Buddhism in the following thousand years for Buddhism in China. In comparison with those in Tang, Buddhism in China did not go beyond what it achieved before. The conduct of Song emperors towards Buddhism was then, as it has been more recently, very inconsistent. Favor was shown to priests, while occasional edicts were issued intended to check the progress of the system. The emperors gratified their private feelings by gorgeous erections for the practice of idolatry, while they paid a tribute to the Confucian prejudices of the literati by denouncing the religion in public proclamations. 
However, through the Song and Yuan dynasties, many Buddhist buildings were added till they grew to their present magnitude. Among these spots none in all China is more famous than the island of Pu Tuo, to the east of Chusan. It was about 915 that it was taken possession of by the Buddhists, not many years before the time this narrative has reached. It is dedicated to “Kwan-shi-yin,” a name translated from the Sanskrit. Pu Xian, another fictitious Bodhisattwa, is honored in a similar way at Mount E’Mei in Sichuan. At Mount Jiuhua in Anhui, Di Zang, another of the great Bodhisattwas, is honored with special worship. The fourth and last of these establishments, the great gathering-place of the followers of Wen Shu Pusa, is at Mount Wutai in Shanxi. The name Pu Tuo is the same as that known in Indian ancient geography as “Potala” or “Potaraka”. Kwan-shi-yin is said in the Hua-yen sutra to have taught the Buddhist doctrines on that island. The original island was situated in the Southern sea of Indian geographers, and Pu Tuo is therefore denominated Nanhai Pu Tuo (the Pu Tuo of the Southern sea). The number of priests from all parts of China who visit this sacred island is immense.  
Buddhism generally continues to be a major influence in Chinese religious life. In the early twentieth century, there was an attempt to modernize and reform the tradition in order to attract wider support. One of the most well-known reformists was Tai Xu, a monk noted for his scholarship. Besides introducing many reforms in the monastic community, he also introduced Western-style education which included the study of secular subjects and foreign languages for Buddhist. 
In a time of more than two decades by 1980s, under the People’s Republic of China, Buddhism was suppressed. Many monasteries were closed and monks and nuns returned to lay life. In recent years, a more liberal policy regarding religion has led to a growth of interest in the practice of Buddhism. 
The history of Buddhism in China is a complex process of importation, assimilation, and transformation of a foreign religion, and cannot be exhausted in detail in a short essay. This is only a brief account on the history of Buddhism in China. Further discussion about Buddhist culture such as literature, buildings, art, cuisine, etc have to be left out, because of length limitation. 
The impact of Buddhism to China has been remaining profound for more than one thousand years, deep in all aspects of life of Chinese people. It left numerous treasures waiting to be dig up by following researches. 

Vietnam

Vietnam

Vietnamese Buddhism has a long history of more than 2,000 years, with 80% of its present population as Buddhists. 

One fifth of the Vietnamese population of approximately 25 million is composed of hill tribes or inhabitants. According to an accurate remark of a French historian more than 100 years ago, at least three quarters of the population or 15 million, are “lukewarm or warm Buddhists”. Perhaps by the end of 2nd century AD, Buddhism had spread in the country. 
Opinions differ as to the exact date of the introduction of Buddhism into Vietnam but it is most likely to have been in about the year of 189 AD. 
It was probably a former Taoist who had become a Buddhist, Meou-Po, a master from You-tcheou, China, introduced Buddhist teachings in Vietnam. Before him other missionaries such as Marajivaka, Kalyanaruci and K’angseng-houei, came from China or arrived by sea and stayed some time in Giao-Châu, cradle of the present Vietnam. It is very likely that they expounded the Doctrine and thus prepared the way for Meou-Po. 
At this time Vietnam was attached to imperial China, interested only in the propagation of Confucianism. Buddhism was barely tolerated and only known in its outward form. Some insignificant efforts were made to spread the Doctrine but out of an extremely rich Buddhist literature only a few sutras (discourses) were known in Vietnamese translations. 
From 544 to 602 Vietnam enjoyed a brief period of independence, favorable to expansion of Buddhism. But progress was still slight and it was not until the third period of Chinese domination from 603 to 939 that the expansion really began to get under way. A decisive factor was the arrival of two missions. The first in 580 was led by Venerable Vinitaruci, an Indian by birth who was later recognized as the first Patriarch of the Zen sect in Vietnam. The second, in 820, was conducted by Venerable Vô-Ngôn-Thông, who founded another separate Zen sect. The country had 20 stupas (shrines) in which to house the precious relics, offered, as a diplomatic gift by the Chinese Emperor, as well as many temples and some 500 monks, many of whom were famous for their great knowledge and strict discipline. 
In 939 Ngô Quyền, having expelled the last Chinese governor and defeated the Imperial army that was sent against him, declared himself king, thus bringing to an end more than a thousand years of foreign domination. But the Ngô Dynasty, weakened by internecine conflicts, only held the throne for a while. It fell amid the fire and blood of the Rebellion of the Twelve Lords, one of whom, Đinh-bộ-Lĩnh, emerged victorious from the struggle and assumed the title of Emperor. In this period the Buddhism in Vietnam marked a pause, but in China, it was undergoing terrible persecution. 
With the coming to power of Đinh-bộ-Lĩnh, who became a protector of Buddhism, began an era of prosperity for the Doctrine, lasting until 1009, during which the religion assumed the character of a popular belief. 
At Phật-Đà monastery lived the monk Ngô-chân-Lưu, who was a refined scholar, a talented poet and moreover advanced in the Zen practice of meditation. The Emperor having heard good reports of him, invited him to expound the Dharma at court and was so satisfied with his teaching that he placed him at the head of the Sangha (Community of Buddhist monks), that he had just created. A year later the sovereign conferred on Ngô-chân-Lưu the honor of making him an Imperial Councilor, with the complimentary title Khuông Việt (Servant of Việt-Nam), in order to express his appreciation of the latter’s sound advice on public affairs. 
The Lê Dynasty succeeded that of the Đinh (980-1909), and continued to favor the Sangha, and also to listening to the advice of monks like Ngô-Chân-Lưu on political as well as religious matters. It was under this dynast that, for the first time, a Vietnamese embassy was sent to China in order to bring back a complete collection of the Tripitaka. 
One particular fact helps to explain the privileged position of Buddhism under the Đinh and Lê. Since the year 187 people in Vietnam had been taught to read and write Chinese characters, as a result of Chinese domination. But this instruction was limited to a small elite, apart from the Buddhist monks who hoped to find in Chinese translations the essence of a Doctrine, the purely oral transmission of which seemed to them to be insufficient. Cultured men were therefore to be found in the restricted circle of monks who were respected throughout the country not only for their spiritual attainments but also for their vast learning. To the Vietnamese, as to the Chinese of the time, the scholar was highly valued as a man of letters, as well perhaps as a poet, moralist, lawyer, astrologer, doctor or palmist: from which it can easily be imagined with what veneration the monks, who in the public eyes were the repositories of the learning of the Great Masters of China, were surrounded. 
The last ruler of the Lê dynasty was a cruel despot. His death was the signal for a palace revolt which brought to power Lý-công-Uẩn, one of the pricipal mandarins. Pupil of Venerable Cổ Pháp and former disciple of Venerable Vạn-Hạnh, Lý-công-Uẩn ascended the throne in 1010, from which date he was known as Lý-Thái-Tổ. To the history of Vietnamese Buddhism he has left the memory of one of the greatest spiritual figures. Under his rule the progress of Buddhism was assured; the prestige of numerous Zen masters, such as Vạn-Hạnh, Đa-Bảo and Sùng Phạm, adding particular brilliance to the teaching and practice of the Dharma. 
Lý-Thái-Tổ died in 1028. His successors, such as Lý-Thái-Tôn (1028-1045), who was a most devout Buddhist, proved worthy of the examples of devotion that they had been set. Lý-Thái-Tôn is thought to have attained satori (originated from Japanese, “insight”) while under the instruction of his guru (teacher) the Venerable Thiền-Lão of the Vô-Ngôn-Thông sect. 
Among the most notable events marking the expansion of Buddhism during his reign, the construction of 95 temples, ceremonies and exemption from taxes in 1031, the restoration of all images of the Buddha and another fiscal amnesty in 1036, and finally the construction of Diên-Hựu temple in 1049, must be mentioned. This temple was inspired by a dream, in which the Emperor saw himself led to the Lotus Palace by the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, and it explains why he had it built in the unusual form of one column in the midst of an artificial lake. This historic monument, once one of the most famous in Hanoi, was popularly known by the name of Chùa Một Cột (the Temple of the single column). However, it became the object of vandalism by unknown hands in 1954, shortly before French troops withdrew from the capital of the North. Fortunately it was possible to restore it with the help of plans kept in the archives of the French School of Far Eastern Studies. 
Lý-Thánh-Tôn, who succeeded LýThái-Tôn in 1054, was a living image of Buddhist compassion. His reign was marked by frequent distribution of food and clothing to poor families and remission of prison sentences; in which respect he emulated Ashoka, and was noted for his social works. During war with kingdom of Champa in 1069, he found Chinese Master Thảo-Đường, who was mistakenly captured and held as a slave. Upon clear of his identity, Thảo-Đường was immediately released and admitted into Vietnamese Sangha, and allowed to expound Dharma at the Khai-Quốc temple. Thảo-Đường attracted many disciples and later established a new Zen sect, which still bears his name. The sovereign himself was interested in this sect and like his ancestor is thought to have attained enlightenment. 
From 1128, until the end of the Lê Dynasty in 1225, three Emperors were interested in following Zen meditation and practice. The last even became a monk himself, abdicating in favor of his daughter, who in her turn transferred her authority to her husband Trần Cảnh, the founder of the Trần dynasty. 
Throughout Vietnamese history Buddhism was never so flourishing as under the Lêdynasty. During eight reigns over 215 years, the religion of Sakyamuni was the only one worshipped and honored. This imperial support was a genuine act of devotion, inspired as much by the sublime teachings of the Buddha as by spiritual caliber of the followers of the Doctrine. 
During the first seventy years of the Trần dynasty, expansion of Buddhism slowed down, though it maintained its importance despite the advances made by Confucianism. The founder of the dynasty himself and his grandson, crowned in 1278, were held to be even more devout than the Emperors of the Lý dynasty. Vietnamese Buddhism is indebted to the former for many favors and an unreserved support and also for two treatises, one on meditation and the other on the Doctrine in general, both of which are of a high religious and literary standard. 
His grandson abdicated after a reign of fifteen years, in order to retire to a monastery on Mount Yên tử, where he devoted himself to the practice of Zen and the instruction of numerous disciples. In North Vietnam he is considered the first of the three patriarchs of the Trúc Lâm (Bamboo Forest) sect. 
It seemed that, however, Buddhism had already attained its peak in ascendancy. In 1414, Vietnam again fell under Chinese domination; this time for ten years. Under the influence of the Minh dynasty a new impetus was given to Confucianism, which produced significant developments in philosophy and literature. The influence of Taoism grew also and there was an influx of Tibetan Buddhism in its Tantric form. 
Vietnam regained its independence in 1428 but this did not help Buddhism very much. The Emperor Thái Tổ of the later Lê dynasty instituted an examination for monks: those who failed had to return to lay life. Thirty years later repressive measures were introduced, which interfered with the monks and prohibited the construction of new temples. Buddhism retained its support among the people as a whole but it lost its original purity and degenerated into a mixture of different ideas or syncretism. 
Between 1528 and 1802, struggle for power between the lords of Trịnh in the North and the lords of Nguyên in the South favored the creation of new Zen sects, under Chinese masters, and the building of temples, as both factions wanted the support of the people, who were profoundly attached to Buddhism. The rebuilding of the temples Quỳnh Lâm and Sùng nghiêm, ordered by the lord Trịnh Giang in the North, is famous on account of the tremendous amount of work involved; 6,000 craftsmen and builders working day and night for a whole year. 
The lords of Nguyễn in the South showed a similar zeal. In 1601 Nguyễn Hoàng ordered the Thiên Mụ temple to be built, which is still to be seen at Huế. A pagoda of seven storeys and an exceptionally resonant bell are the pride of this famous temple. Encouraged by Nguyễn Hoàng many Chinese monks traveled around the country, expounding the Doctrine, and they were responsible for building most of the temples in and near Huế, so that they are well remembered. 
The Nguyễn restored national unity but Buddhism became an instrument for consolidating political power. The monks were simply custodians of official temples and had to be on hand to preside at ceremonies. The essence of Buddhism was so obscured that there was a general slackness in the monasteries and people imagined that the Buddha was a sort of god, who would reward them if they gave him presents.
The situation became worse still with the advent of French colonization in the second half of the nineteenth century. For the ensuing period of eighty years or so Buddhism was actively menaced by Roman Catholicism and was subject to many repressive measures such as control of the monks, necessity to obtain permission to built temples, restrictions on the right of the Community to accept gifts and legacies etc. Serious monks therefore preferred to live a solitary life, which left the field open for those who indulged in priestcraft. The latter, who naturally had only their own interests at heart, furthered the development of the syncretism already mentioned, so that Buddhism in Vietnam presented the sorry sight of a religious hotchpotch, composed of mysticism, Tantrism, animism and polytheism. 
Starting in 1920, after its counterpart in China, a new movement was launched simultaneously in the three main regions of Vietnam: North, Center and South. The movement aimed at regeneration of Buddhism and even serious obstacles couldn’t stop it. But it was not until 1931 that the first Association of Buddhist Studies was founded at Saigon Similar associations were founded at Huế in 1932 and Hanoi in 1934. 
Each association had its own program but composed as they were of both monks and laymen, it was their task to improve conditions in the monasteries, tighten up discipline, instruct a new generation of monks, who should be both devout and well educated and finally to ensure a wide diffusion of the Doctrine in Vietnamese while not in Chinese. With such aims in view many magazines and translations from the Buddhist Canon, both Theravadin and Mahayanist were published. It is paradoxical that while Zen lost its influence it was Amidism that took its place, which it retains at the time of writing. 
This movement to revive Buddhism succeeded and there was a change of opinion among the intellectuals, who were disillusioned with Western materialism. Unfortunately the second World War put a stop to all these efforts until in 1948 the situation turned clearer and better. At Hanoi the communities of monks broken up by the war were reformed and the Buddhist community was reorganized, together with the Association of laymen. A year later, thanks to the initiative of Venerable Tố Liên and Trí Hải and the strong support of the laity, an orphanage, a school, a printing press and social works to help the victims of the war raging in the countryside, were also established at Hanoi. Similar reorganization was carried out at Huế. Ruined temples in several places were rebuilt or restored; old publications reappeared and authors and translators went back to work with energy. 
Two year later a new Association of Buddhist Studies came into existence at Saigon, to replace the previous one that was no longer active. 
On May 6th, 1951, a national Buddhist Congress was held at Huế, attended by about fifty monks and laymen. Important resolutions were passed, concerning unification of the three Associations, reorganization in depth of the Sangha, and standardization of ceremonies. The Congress further ratified the support given by Venerable Tố Liên, delegate from the North, to the World Fellowship of Buddhists, which came into existence as a result of the first World Congress held at Colombo in 1950. 
The second World Congress, held at Tokyo in September 1952, gave to Vietnamese Buddhism, now unified, an opportunity to show its vigor. The Singhalese delegation to this Congress were taking a relic of the Buddha to Japan, aboard the French steamer «La Marseillaise», which had to stop for a day at Saigon. It was decided to accord a devout reception to this relic and under the auspices of unified Vietnamese Buddhism 50,000 people, who had assembled in less than six days, gave the capital of Vietnam an impressive view of faith, devotion and discipline such as had not been seen before. 
This peaceful demonstration had happy results. From the North to the South a reinvigorated Buddhism, warmly acclaimed, was able to broaden its scope and offset the effect of unorthodox sects. Since then social works, schools for monks, private schools under Buddhist auspices and youth organizations have increased and flourished. Progress was made in making known Buddhist thought and it was only the partition of the country into two zones by the Geneva Agreement that hindered still more far-reaching results. 
In theory there are three main religions in Vietnam: Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism. But actually there is only one, which is an amalgam of these three doctrines, each of which represents a particular aspect of the whole. This state of affairs makes it difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish three separate religious communities among the Vietnamese. There are perhaps some people who follow either Taoism or Buddhism but they are in a minority. The bulk of the population remains unprejudiced and is not interested in sectarian distinctions. A Buddhist family for example will visit Taoist temples and perform the rites belonging to the Confucian cult of ancestors. 
Many scholars are really products of Buddhism, though they do not deny the principles of Confucianism. Even if there is no direct borrowing of ideas many Buddhist concepts such as impermanence, karma, causality, rebirth and earthly sufferings are found in their writings, so that there can be little doubt about their common origin. Buddhism has had a particularly strong moral and behavior effects in Vietnamese social life. 
The influence of the three religions is clear in the artistic field, where that of Buddhism is predominant. Architecture, painting and sculpture are often inspired by two of the key ideas of Buddhism, which are Purity and Compassion. The flower of the lotus is a frequent motif and the various representations of Avalokiteshvara are greatly venerated, especially by women. 
General Buddhist Association of Vietnam, compared with other coexisting groups, is by far the most important, the best organized, the only dynamic and also the only recognized to represent Buddhism in Vietnam. Moreover, General Buddhist Association of Vietnam (G.B.A) is a member of the World Fellowship of Buddhists since the foundation of this latter in 1950 at Colombo. 
Under GBA’s authority and direction, 3 Sanghas numbering well over 3.000 monks and about 600 nuns. On the other hand, three communities of disciples which branch out their ramification as far as to remote hamlets. The figures of adherents to these three legally constituted about 1,000,000, to which it should be added an important number of no-associate disciples by as much as threefold. The Sanghas are responsible for all spiritual tasks and to the lay communities comes the duty of relieving the religious from all material preoccupations. 
In monastic schools, the educational program is mixed, there the students learn canonical texts and the official curriculum as well. Many of them are attending or already terminated their high study at the Saigon and Hue Universities. 
Young people from 8 to 20 years old are incorporated in a Youth Movement known under the name of Gia dinh Phat tu  (Buddhist Family). Established in 1940, this widespread Movement aims to give these youths a religious education, susceptible to make them, later on, fervent Buddhists, practitioners, capable of sacrifices for the maintenance and expansion of their parents’ religion, to become honest citizens and useful to the society. 
After 23 years of existence, this Movement, benevolently conducted by a 3,000 trainer Corps, numbers about 70,000 youngsters and unequally dividing into 1.000 groups from the city to the country. One fouth of these youngsters attend private, primary and secondary schools established by lay associations, and their brilliant success at different examinations began to attract the attention of the public. 
The social reformative tendency inspired by activities of the General Buddhist Association is a hilarious initiative. It is quite sure that with the return of peace, more encouraging results will be obtained to the mightiest glory of Buddha. 

Indonesia

Indonesia

Religion plays a major role in life in Indonesia. According to data in 1997, approximately 88% of Indonesia’s 222 million people are Muslims, 5% are Protestant, 3% are Catholic, 2% are Hindu, 1% are Buddhist, and 1% are in other religions. Nowadays, Buddhism is mainly followed by the Indonesian Chinese and other indigenous groups in Indonesia. Among the roughly 2.5 million Buddhism followers, it was estimated that 1 million were affiliated with Theravada Buddhism and roughly 0.5 million belonging to the Buddhayana sect founded by Jinarakkhita. Other estimates placed Buddhists at around only 1 percent of the population, or less than 2 million. 

As the second oldest religion in Indonesia only later than Hinduism, Buddhism in Indonesia has a long history. Buddhism and Hinduism were brought to Indonesia around the 2nd and 4th century AD when Indian traders arrived on the islands of Sumatra, Java and Sulawesi, bringing their religions, hence the history of Buddhism in Indonesia is closely related to the history of Hinduism. Before the arrival of these two religions, people believed that nature had supernormal power. Trees and stones were worshipped as sacred objects, where beings with supernormal power reside. 
 Hinduism started to develop in Java in the 4th century AD with Brahmanist cults worshipping Siva, and traders also established Buddhism in Indonesia in the following century. Empires based on Buddhist culture were established around the same period. A number of historical heritages can be found in Indonesia, including the Borobudur Temple in Yogyakarta and statues or prasasti from the earlier history of Buddhist empires. 
Buddhism reached its peak at the time of the Sriwijaya’s dynasty rule, which was once the largest Buddhist kingdom in South East Asia, from around the 7th century until the 14th century. During that time, many Buddhist colleges and monasteries were built, and famous Buddhist scholars, such as Dharmapala and Sakyakirti, were teaching there. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim I-tsing visited Srivijaya in Sumatra on his voyage to India. Another major Buddhist kingdom was the Mataram kingdom, which was ruled by the Sailendra clan during the 8th and 9th century in Central Java. Many Buddhist temples were built and Buddhist texts were inscribed on the stones tablets (called prasasti) during this time.
During the rule of the Majapahit kingdom between 13th to 15th century, Buddhism and Hinduism coexisted peacefully. After the fall of Majapahit, Islam was brought to Indonesia by traders from Gujarat, India. The influence of Buddhism started to decrease substantially after that, and was mainly confined to the areas of Eastern Java and Bali. 
In the 1920s a superb bronze bust of the Buddha was found on Sulawesi, one of the larger islands making up Indonesia. This is the easternmost point that any Buddhist antiquity has ever been found. There is, though, no evidence of an enduring Buddhist presence either on Sulawesi or beyond it; no ruined temples or monasteries, no inscriptions or references to it in the historical records. However, only a few hundred miles southwest of Sulawesi is the small island of Bali, where archeological, epigraphical and literary evidence shows that Buddhism existed alongside Hinduism for about seven hundred years. 
A Balinese work of uncertain date called the Nagarakrtagama by the Buddhist monk lists all the Buddhist temples in Bali, twenty six altogether, and mentions that in 1275 King Kretanagara underwent a Tantric Buddhist initiation to protect his kingdom from an expected invasion by Kublai Khan. The island’s history is scant until 1343 when it was conquered by and absorbed into the Majapahit Empire of Java-Sumatra. Hinduism and Buddhism both received state patronage although the type of Buddhism that prevailed gradually became indistinguishable from Hinduism. A Javanese Buddhist work from about the 12th century contains this telling verse. “The one substance is called two, that is, the Buddha and Siva. They say they are different but how can they be divided? Despite differences there is oneness”. Clearly at the time these words were being composed, some Buddhists were struggling to maintain the uniqueness of the Dharma while others were stressing its similarity with Hinduism. Eventually in both Java and Bali the integrators prevailed. Incidentally, the phrase “Despite differences there is oneness” (Bhineka tunggal ika) has been taken as the motto for the Republic of Indonesia. With the collapse of Mahapahit in 1515 and the ascendancy of Islam, Java’s old intellectual and religious elite, including the last surviving Buddhist monks and scholars sought refuge in Bali. 
Beginning in the first half of the 20th century, Buddhism in Indonesia had indications of revival. In 1934, Narada Thera, a famous missionary monk from Sri Lanka, visited Indonesia for the first time as part of his journey to spread the Dharma in Southeast Asia. This opportunity was used by a few local Buddhists to revive Buddhism in Indonesia. A Bodhi tree planting ceremony was held in front of Borobudur on March 10, 1934 under the blessing of Narada Thera, and some Upasakas were ordained as monks. 
In about 1955, Buddhism started to make a comeback in Indonesia when monk Ashin Jinarakkhita started a tour across various regions in Indonesia to spread the Dharma. Since that time there has been a revival of Theravada Buddhism in Indonesia led by indigenous monks trained in Thailand, although the Mahayana tradition is still well represented. 
Provinces with relatively high percentage of Buddhists are Jakarta, Riau, North Sumatra, and West Borneo. The majority of Buddhists now practice in the Theravadin tradition. Two of the large Buddhist monasteries are located in North Jakarta (Sunter) and West Java (Pacet). Unfortunately, because Confucianism and Taoism are not recognized in the Constitution, followers from these two religions also call themselves “Buddhist” (therefore, the actual numbers of Buddhists are believed to be less than the official figure).
Following the attempted coup of 1965, any hint of deviation from the monotheistic tenets of the Pancasila was regarded as treason, and the founder of Perbuddhi, Bhikku Ashin Jinarakkhita, proposed that there was a single supreme deity, Sang Hyang Adi Buddha. He sought confirmation for this uniquely Indonesian version of Buddhism in ancient Javanese texts, and even the shape of the Buddhist temple complex at Borobudur in Jawa Tengah Province. In the years following the 1965 abortive coup, when all citizens were required to register with a specific religious denomination or be suspected of communist sympathies, the number of Buddhists swelled; some ninety new monasteries were built. In 1987 there were seven schools of Buddhism affiliated with the Perwalian Umat Buddha Indonesia (Walubi): Theravada, Buddhayana, Mahayana, Tridharma, Kasogatan, Maitreya, and Nichiren. 
Two important Buddhist Javanese texts are the Sang Hyang Kamahaanikan and the Kamahayanan Mantranaya. 
With many different religions practiced in Indonesia, conflicts between believers are often unavoidable, though Indonesian government recognizes a number of different religions. In the New Order era, former president Suharto proposed the Anti-Chinese law which prohibits anything related to Chinese culture, including names and religions. As a result, Buddhism and Confucianism were banned from the country. Nevertheless, positive forms of relations have also appeared in the society, such as the effort from six different religious organizations to help the 2004 Tsunami victims. 
The government has made an effort to reduce the tension by proposing the inter-religion co-operation plan. The Foreign Ministry, along with the biggest Islamic organization in Indonesia, Nahdatul Ulama, held the International Conference of Islamic Scholars, to promote Islamic moderation, which is believed to reduce the tension in the country. On December 6, 2004, the “Dialogue on Interfaith Cooperation: Community Building and Harmony” conference was opened. The conference, which attended by ASEAN countries, Australia, East Timor, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea was intended to discuss possible co-operation between different religious groups to minimize inter-religious conflict in Indonesia. The Australian government, represented by the Foreign Minister Alexander Downer, supported the dialogue by co-hosting it.
In the period 600 AD to 800 AD there was a golden age of temple construction throughout India, Ceylon and Southeast Asia. It was a time when Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished and men raised magnificent monuments to heaven in praise of their gods with a burst of frenetic activity of cultural expression and devotion. After periods of glory they sank into oblivion, either as a result of military conquest or natural disasters and their monuments were reclaimed by the jungle and lost to mankind for almost a thousand years. 

One of the most spectacular of these is the Buddhist temple of Borobudur that lies in Eastern Java on the Kedu Plain. It is surrounded by an idyllic landscape of incomparable beauty of rice-terraced hills and overlooked by four volcanoes. The Sailendra dynasty built it over a period of 80 years in the 9th century, transforming a volcanic plug of basalt into a stepped pyramid with a base measuring 120 square meters and 35 meters high. 

It was built to resemble a microcosm of the universe and its purpose was to provide a visual image of the teachings of the Buddha and show, in a practical manner, the steps through life that each person must follow to achieve enlightenment. The pilgrim to this shrine would first have been led around the base and shown the friezes, which illustrate the consequences of living in the World of Desire. In this realm ruled by Greed, Envy, and Ignorance, man is a slave to earthly desires and suffers from the illusions that are caused by these unfulfilled yearnings, a state regarded as hell by Buddhists. After completing this circuit, the pilgrim was then led in a clockwise fashion through five levels in a gradual ascension of the pyramid. Here he was shown how to conquer desire and attachment by viewing 1300 paneled friezes that illustrate the life of the Buddha and his previous incarnations. These levels were called the World of Form and correspond to the earthly realm in Buddhist symbology. The passages of both of these realms follow the square shape of the pyramid but above these two lay the World of Formlessness where the right-angled, heavily decorated passages give way to a round unadorned summit where meditating Buddhas and saints sit in supreme bliss contemplating a view of exquisite beauty. In the center a bell-shaped tower, or stupa, points to heaven, a blissful realm beyond form and concept, known as Nirvana. 
Encompassing the totality of existence with its representations of heaven, earth, and hell in this metaphor of stone, the monument was abandoned after a severe earthquake and a large eruption of the volcano Merapi in 1006 AD until it was rediscovered by the West during colonial times. One of the miracles, perhaps equaling the miracle of its construction and craftsmanship, is that the monument still exists and can be seen to this day. This area of Java is one of the most earthquake prone regions in the world as well as one of the most volcanic. From the top of the temple, the volcano Merapi is easily visible, still smoking to this day, having erupted on more than a few occasions during the last millennia. 
Approximately two miles of exquisite relief sculptures depicting the life of the Buddha cover the upper half of the main wall all around the first gallery of the monument, a total of 120 panels. These reliefs were carved to illustrate a text entitled the Lalitavistara, “The Unfolding of the Play.” The above relief shows Sakyamuni having left the palace and dismissed his horse and groom, stands at the left beneath a parasol, bidding farewell to the supernatural beings who accompanied him.
The Dutch carried out some piecemeal reconstruction during colonial times but it was left to the Indonesian government to make a complete restoration with help from the United Nations in the 1970-80s. This huge task has now been completed so that the temple is now in better shape than it has been since the major eruption of Merapi in 1006 AD.

Malaysia

Malaysia

Malaysia is a multi-religious society, and Islam is the country’s official religion. The four main religions are Islam (58% of the population), Buddhism (22.9%), Christianity (11.1%, mostly in Sabah and Sarawak), and Hinduism (6.3%), according to government census figures in 2004. Until the 20th century, most had practiced traditional beliefs, which arguably still linger on to a greater degree than Malaysian officialdom is prepared to acknowledge. 

The country is officially a Muslim state, and the Government actively promotes the spread of Islam in the country and its friendship with other Muslim countries. Nevertheless, other religions are tolerated and the individual’s right to the freedom of worship is listed in the country’s constitution. The government also gives grants to religious bodies of other religions for building projects and other programs. All the major religious festival days of the Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus, and Christians have been declared national public holidays. 
According the Malaysian constitution, the majority ethnic group, the Malays, is legally defined as Muslim. The remainder consists mostly of Indians, who are generally Hindus, and Chinese, who are generally Buddhists or Christians. There are also a small number of other indigenous habitants and immigrants; among the latter are Malaysians of Sinhalese, Thai, and Eurasian origin. Many of these immigrant peoples also profess the Christian faith, but there are also Buddhists among the Sinhalese and Thai. Nearly all of the Buddhists in Malaysia live in urban areas, since they are mostly engaged in business or employed in various professions.  
The general climate of religious freedom in Malaysia indicates that Buddhism may have the opportunity to expand in the future. However, Buddhism has often been described as a gentle religion which does not carry out an active program to seek converts. Malaysians tend to personally respect one another’s religious beliefs, with inter-religious problems arising mainly from the political sphere. 
The history of Malaysia is a relatively recent offshoot of the history of the wider Malay-Indonesian world. Culturally and linguistically, there was until recent times little to distinguish the territories which now constitute Malaysia from the lands of the Malay Archipelago. Today the Malay world is divided into six states - Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, Brunei and East Timor – largely as the result of outside influences. 
During history, Malaysia’s geographical position places it between the great civilizations. To the west are Hindu India, the Islamic Middle East and Christian Europe. To the north-east are China and Japan. The shipping routes from China to the west pass through the region, and the most direct route passes through the Strait of Malacca. This has made Malaysia a natural meeting place of trade routes and cultures, something which has brought the area great wealth as well as effects of politics and culture, but has also made it difficult for the Malay peoples to resist foreign influence and domination. 
The history of the Malaysian area can be seen as four successive phases of outside influence, followed by the final assertion of Malay independence. 
The first phase saw the domination of Hindu culture imported from India, which reached its peak in the great Srivijaya civilization based in Sumatra, which ruled most of the Malay world from the 7th to 14th centuries. 
The second phase began with the arrival of Islam, which began in the 10th century, and led to the conversion of most of the Malay-Indonesian world and the breakup of the Srivijayan Empire into many smaller sultanates, the most prominent of which was the Melaka (Malacca). Islamic culture has had a profound influence on the Malay peoples, but has also been influenced by them. 
The third phase was the intrusion into the area of the European colonial powers: first the Portuguese, who captured Melaka in 1511, then the Dutch and finally the British, who established bases at Penang and Singapore. European domination led to the most fateful event in Malay history – the Anglo-Dutch treaty of 1824, which drew a frontier between British Malaya and the Netherlands East Indies, which became Indonesia. This arbitrary division of the Malay world has proved permanent. 
European domination also led to the fourth phase of foreign influence: the mass immigration of Chinese and Indian workers to meet the needs of the colonial economy created by the British in the Malay Peninsula and North Borneo. The Chinese and Indians posed a profound threat to the Malays, dominating economic life and the professions, and at one time threatening to make the Malays a minority in their own country. 
Until now, there is no clear written history concerning Buddhism in Malaysia, and hence it is difficult to trace back the introduction of Buddhism into Malaysia. However, considering the close geographical and cultural links between Malay areas, namely those between today’s Malaysia and other states and areas, perhaps it is possible to deduce that Buddhism in Malaysia might be brought forth by the immigrated Buddha-worshiping people, such as Indians, Sinhalese, Thais, and Chinese. 
Theravada Buddhism had existed in Malaysia for centuries among the Thai ethnic community that lived along the peninsula’s northern border with Thailand. A vigorous community, the Thai sangha had a benevolent influence on the other races, especially the ethnic Chinese in the northern states. However, due to language and cultural differences, few Chinese were ordained into the Thai sangha. Theravada Buddhism only began to have a significant impact on the Chinese Malaysian community early this century as a result of a curious combination of causes.  
The first Theravada society in Malaysia was the Sasana Abhiwurdhi Wardhana Society (SAWS) by the end of the 19th century. Initially serving the immigrant Sri Lankans, it played a remarkable role about fifty years later. 
A 32-year-old bhikkhu, Dhammananda, upon the invitation of the SAWS, came to Malaysia at the end of 1951. By that time, he had excelled as a scholar, graduating from Benares Hindu University in India. To enhance his missionary efforts, he formed the Buddhist Missionary Society (“BMS”) in 1962. He also started a vigorous program of regular sermons at the Buddhist Maha Vihara, Brickfields in the capital city of Kuala Lumpur and at various societies scattered throughout the country. As a result, Theravada Buddhism attracted a large section of the English-speaking public. 
In December 1976, Ven. Dhammananda initiated a program enabling Buddhists interested in experiencing the life of a monk to ordain as samaneras for a short period of time. Since then, this novitiate program has been an annual event and has resulted in several young men taking up the robe as a life commitment. Some of these bhikkhu disciples are pursuing studies in Sri Lanka or residing at the Brickfields Vihara. He passed away at age 87 in 2006 in Kuala Lumpur. Monks from various sects of Buddhism of Mahayana, Theravada, and Vajrayana chanted memorizing him in the following days. 
Elsewhere, other temples set up by Sri Lankan monks also gained popularity. One such was the Mahindarama Vihara on the island of Penang. Others are the Sri Lanka Buddhist Temple in the northern part of Kuala Lumpur and the Seck Kia Eenh temple in Melaka. 
In Penang, the Burmese temple and some of the Thai temples had a significant effect on the Malaysians. The Burmese Dhammikarama temple in particular was once very popular. 
One of the several Thai temples in Penang, Wat Ping Ban Onn set up the Malaysian Buddhist Meditation Center with a resident Thai bhikku to teach the technique of meditation popularized by the Burmese monk Mahasi Sayadaw. This center is closely associated with many Chinese Malaysian monks particularly those that pursue the path of meditative practice. 
One of the earliest of Malaysian monks is the Ven. Sujivo. He set up Santisukharama, a meditation center in a rubber tree plantation in Kota Tinggi on the southern tip of peninsular Malaysia. Since then he has inspired numerous meditation centers to be set up by various groups throughout the country and has also extended his teaching tours to East Malaysia and Australia. 
Others include the Ven. Suvanno. A charismatic speaker fluent in English as well as the Hokkien dialect, he established the Buddhist Hermitage in the northern village of Lunas, one of the first monasteries set up by Malaysian bhikkus. Another popular teacher was the Ven. Visuddhacara, an ex-journalist. There was also Aggacitta, lesser known but respected among the bhikkus for his knowledge of Vinaya and the Buddhist scriptures. 
At present, it is estimated that there are more than 80 Malaysian bhikkus, excluding those of ethnic Thai descent. However, as the country has no facilities whatsoever for training bhikkus, many of them travel to Thailand or Myanmar to ordain and practice. A smaller number who pursue scholarly study are training in the bhikku schools of Sri Lanka while the rest reside in various small temples and hermitages mostly in and around Penang Island. Till today, there has been no strong initiative to organize them or unite into an indigenous bhikku sangha. 
As a religion without a supreme head to direct its development, Buddhism is practiced in various forms, which, although rarely in open conflict, can sometimes lead to confusion among Buddhists. In Malaysia, some ecumenical moves have been made to coordinate the activities of different types of Buddhists. One example is the formation of the Joint Wesak Celebrations Committee of the temples in Kuala Lumpur and Selangor, which coordinates the celebration of Wesak, a holiday commemorating the birth of the Buddha. An initiative has also begun to form a Malaysian Buddhist Council, representing the various sects of Buddhism in the country to extend the work of the development of Buddhism, especially in giving contemporary relevance to the practice of the religion, as well as to promote solidarity among Buddhists in general. 
In the past, Buddhism in Malaysia was regarded as a superstitious religion practiced by elderly people. This was due to the fact that traditional customs and primitive ways of worshipping were introduced in the name of Buddhism. Such practices inevitably created much misunderstanding about Buddhism, which hampered efforts to attract young people to Buddhism. 
The Malaysian Youth Movement has provided a track record and contributed to the history of Buddhism in this country. The rousing interest among Buddhist youth groups in Malaysia eventually culminated in the establishment of the Young Buddhist Association of Malaysia (YBAM). The Malaysian Youth Movement was initiated by an American Buddhist Bhikku Ven. Sumangalo in1950. Under his tutelage and active promotion, Buddhist societies were set up throughout the country. Ven. Sumangalo also encouraged these Buddhist societies to form youth groups. Thus was the Malaysian Buddhist Youth Movement launched to provide a diversity of activities to accommodate the varied interests of youths. Sumangalo was revered as the “Father of Malaysian Youth Movement”.  Communicating and interacting with Mahayana and Theravada groups, the Malaysian Buddhist Youth Movement is significant to the expansion and propagation of Buddhism in Malaysia. It also to some extent changed the social views of traditional roles of women and personal will of youth. 
The Dhammikarama Burmese Temple that is located opposite the more popular Wat Chaiyamangalaram Thai Buddhist temple actually has a much earlier period in its development history. Based on the record, it was founded way back in 1803 (officially, it was August 1st, 1803). The 200-year-old temple was formerly called Nandy Moloh Burmese temple. According to temple’s record, the land was purchased by a Burmese, Nonya Betong from a British named George Layton for 390 Spanish dollar with official permission granted by Lt Governor Prince of Wales Island, George Leith Baronet. After receiving the land grant title, Nonya Betong donated the land for the construction of Dhammikarama temple. Even today, the lane that houses two distinctive temples is named Burmese lane (many streets and alleys in Penang island still retained old British names). Technically, this Burmese temple can be regarded as the earliest Burmese Buddhist temple in Malaysia.
The main attraction for Buddhist and tourists alike are a historical Pagoda, a 200-year-old well for early settlement of monks, the main shrine hall, and the Sime Hall where a very tall and large all-marble Buddha image is situated. Due to its long history, this temple was designated as one of the fifteen Penang State Heritage Sites to be preserved as tourist attractions for Penang back in the Visit Penang Year, 1988.  

Dhammikarama Burmese temple
The temple compound is quite large actually. Most often visitors may miss the rear section where the well and other attractions are located. Unlike the comparing neighbor Wat Chaiyamangalaram or the further away Wat Buppharam, Dhammikarama Burmese temple has a better green and serene environment. Actually, the temple was awarded first prize in Penang State Landscaping and Beautification Program Competition that was held back in year 2001.
Throughout the calendar year, the Dhammikarama Burmese temple carries out activities for Buddhists such as Water Festival, Wesak Day celebration, Pali Chanting classes, Observance of Buddhist lent, Festival of light (Soon Dawgi), Katnina, Ordination of monks, nuns and novices, Arahant Upaguttea festivals, Dhamma Discourses, Meditation classes, Sunday schools, offering of food to poor and candle lighting etc. 
http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/leofoo/Thai-amulets/Penang/Dhammikarama_Burmese_Temple/index.htm
Wat Chaiyamangalaram
Wat Chaiyamangalaram is located near Pulau Tikus area. Other than the well-known Kek Lok Si Buddhist temple located in Air Hitam, it can be regarded as one of the most popular tourist spot in George Town, Penang Island, Malaysia and the location presents one of the most interesting religious location in this island. Opposite this Wat Chaiyamangalaram Thai Buddhist temple is where the Dhammikarama Burmese Temple locates where the two temples offer tourists a good comparison between Thai and Burmese approach to Buddhism display. As Penang is only a few hundred kilometers away from Thailand, the influence of Thai Buddhist teaching casts a bigger influence to the locals than Burmese. This site also features another Thai Buddhist temple Wat Buppharam which is often referred as The Temple of the Lifting Buddha which may provide visiting tourists or devotees a different kind of an interesting religious oriental cultural experience while at stay in this lovely sunny tropical island.
However, another reason contributed to Wat Chaiya’s popularity is also probably due to Royal visits by Thai King Bhumibol Adulyade, Queen Sirikitj and Queen’s mother back in 1967. 
Although Wat Chaiya has gone through many stages of upgrades over the decades but the Pagoda has retained its original state since it was built (recently re-painted in yellow). The old Pagoda still houses the sacred stone where it was first laid beneath at the small pagoda around the main shrine and the bigger Pagoda. The visit I had recently (2006) saw many facelift and changes in facilities and around the temple’s compound, there are many additions of postures of popular Thai Buddhist images. Internally, the walls, the flooring as well as surroundings have also been improved and upgraded in decorative designs. Together, there are also exhibits of old photos of the Royal visits and updated news of the Royal family activities back in Thailand. 
http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/leofoo/Thai-amulets/Penang/Wat_Chaiyamangalaram/index.htm

Japan

Japan

Of Japan’s estimated 130 million people, more than 80% observe both Shinto and Buddhism. Nowadays about 90 million people consider themselves Buddhists in Japan, but the religion does not directly affect the everyday life of the average Japanese very strongly. Many households keep a small house altar in order to pay respect to their ancestors, and funerals are usually carried out in a Buddhist way. 

The history of Buddhism in Japan can be roughly divided into three periods, namely the Nara period (up to 784), the Heian period (794–1185) and the post-Kamakura period (1185 onwards). Each period saw the introduction of new doctrines and upheavals in existing schools. 
In modern times, Japanese Buddhism belongs to three major schools: the Amidst (Pure Land) schools, Nichiren Buddhism, and Zen Buddhism. 
Introduction of Buddhism into Japan 
The arrival of Buddhism in Japan is ultimately a consequence of the first contacts between China and Central Asia which occurred with the opening of the Silk Road in the 2nd century BC, following the travels of Zhang Qian between 138 and 126 BC, which culminated with the official introduction of Buddhism in China in 67 AD. Historians generally agree that by the middle of the 1st century, the religion had penetrated to areas north of the Huai River. Buddhism then made its way to Korea, and finally to Japan around the 5th century AD. 
There are some Chinese accounts concerning early arrival of Buddhism in Japan. In 467 AD, according to the Chinese historic treatise Liang Shu, five monks from Gandhara traveled to the country of Fusang (“The country of the extreme East” beyond the sea, probably eastern Japan), where they introduced Buddhism: 
“Fusang is located to the east of China, 20,000 li (1,500 kilometers) east of the state of Da Han (itself east of the state of Wa in modern Kyushu, Japan). (...) In former times, the people of Fusang knew nothing of the Buddhist religion, but in the second year of Da Ming of the Song Dynasty (467 AD), five monks from Kipin (Kabul region of Gandhara) traveled by ship to Fusang. They propagated Buddhist doctrine, circulated scriptures and drawings, and advised the people to relinquish worldly attachments. As a result, the customs of Fusang changed.” 
Buddhism is considered to have been officially introduced to Japan in 538 AD when the ruler of Baekje, a Korean kingdom, presented a brilliant image of the Buddha along with scripture-scrolls and ornaments to the Japanese Emperor Kimmei. Initial uptake of the new faith was slow. Emperor Kimmei ruled Japan with his court nobles and immediately controversy started over whether or not such a foreign cult should be accepted. The orthodox Mononobe and Nakatomi clans strongly opposed this new religion on the grounds that Japan already had its traditional and indigenous religion of Shinto. But the influential Soga clan favored Buddhism; they believed that it had much to offer for the enrichment of their culture. Buddhism only started to spread some years later when Empress Suiko openly encouraged the acceptance of Buddhism among all Japanese people. Despite the disputes that took place among the court nobles, the emperor deferred the matter to the Soga clan. In 607, in order to obtain copies of Sutras, an imperial envoy was dispatched to the Sui Dynasty of China. As time progressed and the number of Buddhist clergy increased, the offices of Sojo (archbishop) and Sozu (bishop) were created. By 627 there were 46 Buddhist temples, 816 Buddhist priests, and 569 Buddhist nuns in Japan. 
About 40 years later, the pious Prince Regent Shotoku (574–621) was appointed regent to the Empress Suiko, at which time he declared Buddhism as the official religion. Prince Shotoku was a great statesman and a devout Buddhist. He strongly believed that only with Buddhist teachings could he make Japan a unified and culturally refined country. 
The 17-article Constitution in 604 issued by Prince Shotoku emphasized Buddhist and Confucian principles. Article II of this injunction reads, “Fervently respect the Three Treasures.” Prince Shotoku stressed that everyone should faithfully revere the Three Treasures (the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha) as the supreme and unmistakable guidance. He also ordered the government to build many Buddhist temples, among which the most famous is Horyu-ji temple, the world’s oldest wooden structure now standing near the former capital of Nara. It was because of his patronage and devotion that Buddhism was firmly established on Japanese soil. 
In the beginning the introduction of Buddhism to Japan was highly motivated by political and cultural reasons. The court wanted to establish a system in which the existing clans could be consolidated. Buddhism offered both moral and intellectual benefits which Shinto lacked and it was these cultural learnings that attracted the court. Since Japan did not have a formal written language at the time, all of the Buddhist scriptures that were used were in Chinese. The Chinese and Korean missionaries who introduced Buddhism brought with them rituals and texts from both the Theravadin and Mahayana schools which had been most successful in China. Of particular influence in Japan were three texts: the Lotus Sutra, the Sutra of Golden Light and the Benevolent Kings Sutra. These were sometimes called the Three Scriptures Protecting the State. At first, Buddhism was almost exclusive to the court families. However, the subsequent history of Buddhism in Japan demonstrated a gradual process of Buddhist acculturation downward through a ladder of social strata. And in this respect it has often been said that the aim of the government’s support for Buddhism was less to achieve the salvation of the people than to make use of religion as an instrument of power and imperial consolidation. 
During the Nara period, the great Buddhist monasteries in the capital Nara, such as the Todaiji, gained strong political influence and were one of the reasons for the government to move the capital to Nagaoka in 784 and then to Kyoto in 794. Nevertheless, the problem of politically ambitious and militant monasteries remained a main issue for the governments over many centuries of Japanese history. 
Todaiji (“Great Eastern Temple”) is one of Japan’s most famous and historically significant temples and a landmark of Nara. It was constructed in 752 as the head temple of all provincial Buddhist temples of Japan and grew so powerful that the capital was moved from Nara to Nagaoka in 784 in order to lower its influence on government affairs. Not only is Todaiji housing Japan’s largest Buddha statue (Daibutsu), but it is also the world’s largest wooden building, even though the present reconstruction of 1692 is only two thirds of the original temple’s size. 
After the death of Prince Regent Shotoku, Buddhism continued to flourish among court nobles, monks, and artisans. National Buddhist temples, called kokubunji, were built by the Emperor Shomu in every province, the headquarters of which was at Todai-ji temple in Nara. Buddhist scriptures were introduced from China and without much modification they were studied by the Japanese monks. Buddhist images and ornaments were made by the Japanese artisans, some of which can still be seen in the older temples in Japan.
Buddhist temples in those days were the center of culture; they were not only used as places of worship, but also as schools, hospitals, dispensaries, orphanages, and refuges for older people. The monks were also school teachers, physicians, engineers, and developers of many construction projects. Therefore, the Japanese government encouraged and supported the Buddhist institutions and monks spiritually and materially, so that they could work with the government and the people more effectively. 

There were traditionally six schools of Buddhism in Nara ear of Japan: Ritsu (Vinaya), Jojitsu (Satyasiddhi), Kusha (Abhidharma) Sanron (Madhyamika), Hosso (Yogacara), and Kegon (Hua-yen). However they were not exclusive schools, and temples were apt to have scholars versed in several of the schools. It has been suggested that they can best be thought of as “study groups”. 

Ritsu was Founded by Daoxuan in China, c. 650 AD. First Introduced to Japan by Chinese monk Ganjin in 753 AD, the Ritsu school was specialized in the Vinaya (the monastic rules in the Tripitaka). They used the Dharmagupta version of the vinaya which is known in Japanese as Shibunritsu.
The Satyasiddhi school is considered to be an offshoot of the Sautrantika school, one of the Nikaya schools of Indian Buddhism (see early Buddhist schools). They were distinguished by a rejection of the Abhidharma as not being the “word of the Buddha”. The name literally means “Ends with the Sutras”, which refers to the traditional order of texts in the Tripitaka—vinaya, sutra, abhidharma. 
Kusha was introduced to Japan from China during the Nara period (710–784). The school takes its name from its authoritative text, the Abidatsuma-kusha-ron (Sanskrit:Abhidharma-kosa), by the 4th- or 5th-century Indian philosopher Vasubandhu. The Kusha school is considered to be an offshoot of the Indian Sarvastivada school. 
Sanron, literally Three-Discourse School, is a Madhyamika school which developed in China based on two discourses by Nagarjuna and one by Aryadeva. This school was transmitted to Japan in the 7th century. Madhyamika is one of the two most important Mahayana philosophies, and reemphasizes the original Buddhist teachings that phenomena are neither truly existent nor absolutely non-existent, but are characterized by impermanence and insubstantially. 
The Yogacara schools are based on early Indian Buddhist thought by masters such as Vasubandhu, and are also known as “consciousness only” since they teach a form of idealism which posits that all phenomena are phenomena of the mind. The Hosso school was founded by Xuanzang from China in c. 630 AD, and introduced to Japan in 654 AD. The Discourse on the Theory of Consciousness-Only is an important text for the Hosso school. 
The Kegon school, also known by its Chinese name Huayen, was founded by Dushun from China in c. 600 AD, and introduced to Japan by Bodhisena in 736 AD. The Avatamsaka Sutra is the central text for the Kegon school. 
The Late Nara period saw the introduction of Esoteric Buddhism to Japan from China, by Kukai and Saicho, who founded the Shingon and Tendai schools. The later Heian period saw the formation of the first truly Japanese school of Buddhism, that of Nichiren. 
The Tendai school, known as Tiantai in China, was founded by Zhiyi in China in c. 550 AD. In 804 Saicho traveled to China to study at the Tiantai teachings, at Mount Tiantai. However, before his return, he also studied, and was initiated into the practice of the Vajrayana - with emphasis on the Mahavairocana Sutra. The primary text of Tiantai is Lotus Sutra, but when Saicho established his school in Japan he incorporated the study and practice of Vajrayana as well. 
Kukai traveled to China in 804 as part of the same expedition as Saicho. In the Tang Dynasty’s capital he studied esoteric Buddhism and Sanskrit and received initiation from Huikuo. On returning to Japan Kukai eventually managed to establish Shingon as a school in its own right. Kukai received two lineages of teaching – one based on the Mahavairochana Sutra, and the other based on the Vajrashekhara. 
The Kamakura to modern period saw the introduction of the two schools that had perhaps the greatest impact on the country: the Amidst Pure Land schools, promulgated by evangelists such as Genshin and articulated by monks such as Honen, which emphasize salvation through faith in Amitabha and remain the largest Buddhist sect in Japan (and throughout Asia); and the more philosophical Zen schools, which were equally rapidly adopted by the upper classes and had a profound impact on Japanese culture. 
Amidist Schools 
Jodo
Founder: Huiyuan, China, c. 400 AD
Chinese name: Jingtu (“Pure Land”)
First introduction to Japan: Honen, 1175 AD
Doctrine: nembutsu (“prayer to Buddha”)
Primary text: Infinite Life Sutra  


Jodo Shin
Founder: Shinran, 1224 AD
Japanese name: “True Pure Land”
Major influences: Jodo
Doctrine: shintai zokutai (“Real Truth, Common Truth”)
Primary text: Infinite Life Sutra 


Zen Schools
“Zen” is Japanese for Chan which itself derives from the Sanskrit dhyana (meditation). Two main schools of Chan Buddhism thrived in the Song Dynasty China, both emphasizing meditation and a non-ritualistic direct form of contemplation. Eliminating traditional Buddhist learning, Chan aimed at pointing to the mind and perceiving one’s true nature. At the basis of Chan and Zen philosophy is the Mahayana theory of universal Buddhahood. “Mind and one’s true nature” are expressions of the idea that all beings are Buddhas, and that “Buddha mind” is the shared medium on which people live. It is considered the most direct way to enlightenment. 
In the 17th century Japanese brush and ink handwriting, with its relaxed Zen spontaneity, is one of the exercises practiced by Zen monks.
Several variants of Zen were separately brought to Japan from China. Note that Zen influences are identifiable earlier in Japanese Buddhism, esp. cross-fertilization with Hosso and Kegon, but the independent schools were formed quite late. 
Soto
Founders: Caoshan and Dongshan, China, c. 850
Chinese name: Caodong, named after its founders
First introduction to Japan: Dogen, 1227 AD
Major influences: Tendai, Hosso, Kegon
Doctrine: zazen (“sitting meditation”), especially shikantaza
Primary texts: Transcendental Wisdom Sutras a. k. a. Prajnaparamita Sutras, incl. Heart Sutra 


Rinzai
Founder: Linji, China, c. 850
Chinese name: Linji, named after founder
First introduction to Japan: Eisai, 1191 AD
Major influences: Hosso, Kegon
Doctrine: zazen (“sitting meditation”), especially koan (“public matter”) practice
Primary texts: Transcendental Wisdom Sutras aka Prajnaparamita Sutras, incl. Heart Sutra 


Obaku
Founder: Ingen, Japan, 1654 AD
Japanese name: named the mountain where the founder had lived in China
Major influences: Rinzai
Doctrine: kyozen itchi (“Unity of Sutras and Zen”) 
Primary texts: Transcendental Wisdom Sutras aka Prajnaparamita Sutras, incl. Heart Sutra 
Nichiren Buddhism
The schools of Nichiren Buddhism trace themselves to the monk Nichiren and the proclamation of his teachings in AD 1253. Doctrinally the schools focus on the Lotus Sutra. Nichiren Buddhism split into several denominations after the death of Nichiren, typically represented by tradition-oriented schools such as Nichiren Shu and Nichiren Shoshu and “new religions” such as Soka Gakkai, Rissho Kosei Kai, and Reiyukai. 
Since the militaristic Imperial government surrendered to the Allied Powers in 1945, Buddhism has been neither the monopoly of Buddhist institutions nor of the government nor of a certain privileged class of people. Buddhist studies have been accelerated by the monks, ministers, and scholars in temples, institutions, and universities. Ancient treasures of Buddhist art have been preserved at temples and museums under the protection of the government. Once ruined temples have been restored and have become centers of study and worship. International Buddhist conferences have been held in Japan in which a number of programs have been initiated for the exchange of knowledge and individuals. 
As can be seen from the above brief history of Buddhism in Japan, two streams of Buddhism have come to exist; one which flows from top down and one which flows from the bottom up. In other words, the former can be characterized as “Higher” or “Normative” Buddhism to which many of the Buddhist monks and their denominations belong, though not a form of state religion with official status; while the latter can be characterized as “Lower” or “Popular” Buddhism to which lay members usually profess. In the course and development of Buddhism in Japanese history, when the former acted too progressively, the latter appeared to regress; on the other hand, when the former became hopelessly stagnant, the latter demanded reform movements with religious zeal which ushered in changes in response to the social, economic, and political climate of the day. Because of these two streams which have been interacting with each other, Japanese Buddhism has come to the present time, enriching and developing both its inner and outer forms. 
The Japanese word for “faith” sometimes means “progress” as well, which can mean including something better from outside. Therefore, heterogeneous elements from other beliefs such as Hinduism, Shinto, Confucianism, Taoism, Christianity, and folk religion can be seen in Japanese Buddhism. Most Japanese Buddhists prefer substance and quality over name or form and regard the virtue of the Buddha permeating to all corners of the world. It is pervasive but formless; it is difficult to grasp unless we are a part of it and living in it. This idea is in accordance with the teachings of Mahayana Buddhism. That is why we are taught that all sentient beings, whatever we profess to, are within the hands of the Buddha. 
Some say that this all-embracing attitude of Buddhists is nothing but degenerating Buddhism from its original form, making it insignificant and secular. By assimilating other elements such as modern technology and Western thought, Buddhism in Japan has enriched and expanded its tenets and power while retaining its century-old traditions. In this way, it continually recreates itself. 
Buddhism in Japan stands where its road forks—leading either to self-destruction or development. If it stands idle, it may lead to self-destruction, but if it looks ahead and struggles, it may lead to prosperous development. At the time when the rigorous austerities, intellectualism, and self-affirming egoism have entered a blind alley, there is great perplexity, can these not be set free by the all-embracing sensitivity and ever-renewing selflessness of Buddhist teachings? In this sense, Buddhism in Japan would play a great role in order to give birth to a new sense of value not only in the present world but also in the world to come. 
At present, the Japanese have an opportunity to open their eyes to see Buddhism not only as a part of their culture and tradition, but also as a religion and a way of life. Moreover, they are assured of freedom of belief. Individual minds are once again freed from all external bondage and fetters. At this time, they are free to choose their own belief from the already established or not-yet established systems of thought, religion, philosophy, and morals. It seems that they are now struggling to find the best and most suitable discipline to be the guiding light of their lives. No one can tell exactly where they are going, but one thing is clear, that is, they will never tread the same way as in the past. Instead of becoming tools of an already established culture and tradition, they are becoming fine designers of their own future. 

Hong Kong and Macao

Hong Kong, China

Buddhism was introduced to Hong Kong in 428 A.D. of Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasty from the mainland of China. The earliest heritage of Buddhism in Hong Kong is the monastery of Bei Du in Tang dynasty and Bei Du nunnery and Lingdu temple. Until now, there are relics of Bei Du cave and Beidu well. Buddhism was introduced into Hong Kong and Guangzhou almost at the same time. Since the British took over Hong Kong in 1842, the population had increased and Hong Kong gradually became a world-renowned port. In 1920, Tai Xu was invited to lecture the local population in Buddhism. In 1925, followers of Shingon Buddhism organized Buddhist Lodge of Laity; two years later, Mao Feng went all the way to disseminate Tiantai teachings to engage more people in Buddhism. Therefore, vegetarian restaurants such as Pantaotian, Weiyueguo and Xiaozhiyuan were opened and they also circulated dharma instruments and spread Buddhism. In 1926, Buddhists established Buddhist institution and two years later, build Blissful Garden; in 1928, Tata Buddhist Association was built; the next year, Bamboo Monastery, Luyie Garden and Buddhist Association for Females were constructed. At that time, vegetarian, Buddhist teaching and Buddhist spreading were very popular. Then in 1931, the Hong Kong Buddhist Association and in 1932, the Hong Kong Buddhist Youth Association were established. In 1935, Alter-light of Humanity, a monthly magazine, was published. In 1936, monk Xuyun held the first water and land ceremony of virtue and fate for followers in Hong Kong. Then Buddhist schools, such as Tiantai school, Pure Land school, Chan school and tantric Buddhism developed and laid the foundation for the development of Buddhism in Hong Kong. 

Temple and Buddhist associations are mainly in downtown areas of Hong Kong. 13 out of 17 registered monasteries are in Happy Valley, causeway bay and North Point. From the Quarry Bay in the east of Hong Kong island to Kenndy Town, there are 3 large temples at the two points. In Stanley, the south district of Hong Kong, there is a Kuanyin Temple. Temples and Buddhist associations mainly include Buddhist Temple, Buddhist Study association, vihara, Buddhist lodge, Buddhist class and Zen garden. More influential Buddhism institutions are Hong Kong Buddhist association, Heung Hoi Ching Kok Lin association, Hong Kong Bodhi Siksa society and Karma Kagyu Buddhist Society in Wan Chai, Happy Valley and Causeway bay. Different between traditional monasteries, monasteries of different schools in Hong Kong is have Buddha in modern buildings, depositary of Buddhist texts and administrative bodies. 
The Hong Kong Buddhist association is located in Wan Chai Lockhart Road 338, which is the largest association with its own features. In the second floor of the association’s building, there is a palace with a gilding Buddha statue in the middle. Votary lamps, flowers and vegetables are put beside the Buddha statue. Its depositary of Buddhist texts is very special, for it adopts the layout of modern library and shelves with good ventilation and lighting. Buddhism believers can look up and read these classics and enjoy the tranquility there. 

Buddhism institutions in Hong Kong have the double function of administration and monastery. The Hong Kong Buddhist association is a typical example. 

Macao, China

In Macao, Buddhism is mainly Chan School and Pure Land School. Chan School is divided into Linji school and Sotoshu. Kun Lam Temple is a temple of Sotoshu; Zhulin temple and Yaoshan temple are temples of Linji school and have deep relations with Hualin temple in Guangzhou, a temple of Linji school. Another important school in Macao is Pure Land School and its lecturing monastery is Pou Tai Un. Pou Tai Un is built in 1930s. The owner was Luo Baoshan, a famous artist in the south of the Five Ridges. On July 16, 1964, Master Zhi Yuan bought the main part of Pou Tai Un and ran it with full dedication for decades. So at the early of 1990s, Pou Tai Un became a big and distinctive temple. Master Zhi Yuan is the founder of Pure Land School in Macao. He ordained in Zhhaoqing temple in Hangzhou in 1928 and then spread Buddhism in Guangdong. During the Second World War, he went to Macao from Shiqi, Zhongshan city and established Wisdom Temple and Believers’ Mutual Support Society to help the poor and the old. After he bought Pou Tai Un, he expanded it and made it into a monastery of Pure Land School.  Kong Tac-Lam Buddhist Temple of Piety and Longevity is on Rua S. Jose and an important monastery of Pure Land School in Macao. The temple inherits traditions to pray to Buddha and keep still and in deep meditation. It is also a temple for female Buddhist followers. Chan School and Pure Land School are the main schools of Buddhism in Macao and they advocate the consistency of Zen and Pure Land. Practice for both Zen and Pure land is the character of Buddhism in Macao, which is similar to Buddhism in mainland. The history of Buddhism organizations in Macao can be traced back to the beginning of last century. In1918, Zhao Yutao or Master Guanben learnt from Buddhist Lodge of Laity and institutes on the mainland to establish the institute of Buddha’s voice and gathered believers to study Buddhism and advocate vegetarian. In the period of the Republic of China, active Buddhism organizations were Macao Buddhism institute of understanding and practice, or called Macao Miyan institute. It is worth mentioning that Master Chuk Mor went to Macao from the mainland to start a monthly Buddhism magazine, Words of awakening (Jue Yin in Chinese), which became a bridge for Macao and mainland’s communication in Buddhism. Buddhist organizations include Macao joint association of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism in 1974, Buddhism association in 1988, Buddhist Youth Center in1991, Macao Buddhist Institute, Eternal Virtue Buddhist Center, Buddhism Followers Association, Universal Buddhism Merciful Society, etc. 
Kum Lam Temple was constructed in 1623. For it enshrines the statue of Kuanyin, it is also called Kuanyin temple. Behind Kum Lam temple is the peninsula and the north is Xia Mountain. Kum Lam Temple is the largest ancient Buddhism temple in Macao. The temple is established by a man from Fujian. During 300 years, it was destroyed and rebuilt for several times and now it becomes a large, majestic temple. Along the central axis, there are Mahavir Hall, Amitayus Hall and the hall of Avalokitesvara Buddhisatva. Side halls are Tianhou hall, Dicang hall, Yuqing hall, Longhua Hall, Lejing hall and Patriarch Hall in the west; Guanyu Palace, Guests Hall, Tanyue Hall in the east. Besides, there are Grateful hall and Hall for depositary of Buddhist texts. In the status of eighteen arhats, one with curly bears and big eyes is the shape of Marco Polo, the Italian traveler, who came to China in Ming dynasty. The temple preserves calligraphy and painting works by many famous calligraphers, such as Mifu, Dong Qichang, Liu Yong, Zhang Taiyan, Gao Jianfu, Guan Shanyue. On July 3, 1844, China and America signed Wangxia Treaty in this temple, which was a sad page of the temple’s history. Shortly after the construction of Kum Lam Temple, impacted by the large wave of diehard monks (monks surviving from the last dynasty), Buddhism in the south of the Five Ridges was in an unprecedented boom. So the impact on Buddhism in Macao is profound; it can be said that diehard monks raised the first climax in Macao Buddhism history. 
Among all diehard monks, Shilian Dashan has the biggest influence on Macao Buddhism. Dashan’s (1633-1705) courtesy name is Shilian, also called shilian, shihu. He also named himself Changweng, shitoutuo. His previous surname was Xu and he was from Wuxian, Jiangsu. Dashan has a gift in poem and painting. He is a master in astronomy, good at designing gardens and interested in novel objects. He has a lot of works, but most is not persevered. His works mainly are Collection of Liliu Tang and Overseas stories. In the autumn of 1696, Dashan went back to Guangzhou and donated a large sum of money to build Longevity Temple and Xia Mountain Temple and expand Macao Kum Lam Temple. Patriarch Hall in Macao Kum Lam Temple was built to memorize the patriarch Dashan. In the hall, there is a self-portrait of Dashan, who has long hair and broad vision. The couplet beside the painting saying that the wisdom in Longevity temple benefits the people, and the moon above Xia Mountain temple light Buddhism. This couplet shows the achievements of spreading Buddhism of the temples and the close relation between the two temples. Masters in past dynasties in the Patriarch Hall of Macao Kum Lam Temple, says that Master Shilian, the patriarch to establish Longevity temple of Sotoshu. This shows people’s respect to him. Dashan’s thoughts of Zen and personality are clearly influenced by Buddhism in the south of the Five Ridges and influence Macao Buddhism. At the end of 17 century, when the western and eastern cultures were converging in Macao, because of the renovation of Kum Lam Temple by Dashan, this traditional Chinese temple is revered by Buddhists in Macao. 

American article

Buddhism is a religion with millions of followers in the United States, including traditionally Buddhist Asian Americans as well as non-Asians, many of whom are converts. The U.S. presents a strikingly new and different environment for Buddhists, leading to a unique history and a continuing process of development as Buddhism and America come to grips with each other. 

Early history

Buddhism in the New World 

In the United States, the first immigrants from China entered around 1820, but they began to arrive in large numbers following the California Gold Rush of 1849. The first Buddhist temple in America was built in 1853 in San Francisco by the Sze Yap Company, a Chinese American fraternal society. Another society, the Ning Yeong Company, built a second in 1854; by 1875, there were eight such temples, and by 1900 there were approximately 400 Chinese temples on the west coast of the United States, most of them containing at least some Buddhist elements. These temples were often the subject of suspicion and ignorance by the rest of the population, and were dismissively referred to as joss houses. 
The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 curtailed the growth of the Chinese American population, but large-scale immigration from Japan began in the late 1880s and from Korea around 1903. In both cases, immigration was at first limited primarily to Hawaii. Populations from other Asian Buddhist countries followed, and in each case, the new communities established Buddhist temples and organizations. For instance, the first Japanese temple in Hawaii was built in 1896 near Paauhau by the Honpa Hongwanji branch of Jodo Shinshu. In 1898, Japanese missionaries and immigrants established a Young Men’s Buddhist Association, and the Rev. Soryu Kagahi was dispatched from Japan to be the first Buddhist missionary in Hawaii. The first Japanese Buddhist temple in the continental U.S. was built in San Francisco in 1899, and the first in Canada was built at the Ishikawa Hotel in Vancouver in 1905. The first Buddhist clergy to take up residence in the continental U.S. were Shuye Sonoda and Kakuryo Nishimjima, missionaries from Japan who arrived in 1899. 

At about the same time when Asian immigrants were first starting to arrive in America, some American intellectuals were beginning to come to terms with Buddhism, based primarily on information reaching them from British colonial possessions in India and East Asia. The Englishmen William Jones and Charles Wilkins had done pioneering work translating Sanskrit texts into English. The American Transcendentalists and associated persons, in particular Henry David Thoreau took an interest in Hindu and Buddhist philosophy. In 1844, The Dial, a small literary publication edited by Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson, published the first English version of a portion of the Lotus Sutra; it had been translated by Elizabeth Palmer Peabody from a French version recently completed by Eugène Burnouf (this translation is often attributed to Thoreau himself, but this appears to be erroneous). His Indian readings may have influenced his later experiments in simple living: at one point in Walden he wrote: “I realized what the Orientals meant by contemplation and the forsaking of works.” The poet Walt Whitman also admitted to an influence of Indian religion on his writings.

 

The first prominent American to publicly convert to Buddhism was Henry Steel Olcott. Olcott, a former U.S. army colonel during the Civil War, had grown increasingly interested in reports of supernatural phenomena that were popular in the late 19th century. In 1875, he, along with Helena Blavatsky and William Quan Judge founded the Theosophical Society, which was dedicated to the study of the occult and was partly influenced by Hindu and Buddhist scriptures. The group’s leaders believed or claimed to believe that they were in contact, via visions and messages, with a secret order of adepts referred to as the “Himalayan Brotherhood” or “the Masters”. In 1879, Olcott and Blavatsky traveled to India and then, in 1880, to Sri Lanka, where they were met enthusiastically by local Buddhists, who saw them as allies against an aggressive Christian missionary movement. On May 25th of that year, Olcott and Blavatsky took the pancasila vows of a lay Buddhist before a monk and a large crowd of onlookers. Although most of the Theosophists appear to have counted themselves as Buddhists, they held idiosyncratic beliefs that separated them from all known Buddhist traditions; only Olcott was enthusiastic about following mainstream Buddhism. He would return to Sri Lanka on two further occasions, where he worked to promote Buddhist education, and also visited Japan and Burma. Olcott authored a Buddhist Catechism, stating his view of the basic tenets of the religion. 
A series of new publications greatly increased public knowledge of Buddhism in 19th-century America. In 1879, Edwin Arnold, an English aristocrat, published The Light of Asia, an epic poem he had written about the life and teachings of the Buddha, expounded with much wealth of local color and not a little felicity of versification. The book became immensely popular in the United States, going through eighty editions and selling more than 500,000 copies. Dr. Paul Carus, a German American philosopher and theologian, was at work on a more scholarly prose treatment of the same subject. Carus was the director of Open Court Publishing Company, an academic publishing house specializing in philosophy, science, and religion, and editor of The Monist, a journal with a similar focus, both based in La Salle, Illinois. In 1894, Carus published The Gospel of the Buddha, which was compiled from a variety of Asian texts and, true to its name, presented the Buddha’s story in a form resembling the Christian Gospels. 
Perhaps the most significant event in the 19th-century history of Buddhism in America was the Parliament of the World’s Religions, held in Chicago in 1893. Although most of the delegates to the Parliament were Christians of various denominations, the Buddhist nations of China, Japan, Thailand, and Sri Lanka sent representatives. Buddhist delegates included Soyen Shaku, a Japanese Zen abbott; Zenshiro Noguchi, a Japanese translator; Anagarika Dharmapala, a Sri Lankan associate of H. S. Olcott’s; and Chandradat Chudhadharn, a brother of King Chulalongkorn of Thailand. Paul Carus also attended as an observer. The Parliament provided the first major public forum from which Buddhists could address themselves directly to the Western public; Dharmapala was particularly effective in this role because he spoke fluent English. 

A few days after the end of the Parliament, in a brief ceremony conducted by Anagarika Dharmapala, Charles T. Strauss, a New York businessman of Jewish descent, became, it is believed, the first person to formally convert to Buddhism on American soil. A few fledgling attempts at establishing Buddhism for Americans followed. One of the most interesting, in fact, had initially appeared prior to the Parliament, met with little fanfare, in 1887: The Buddhist Ray, a Santa Cruz, California-based magazine published and edited by Phillangi Dasa, born Herman Carl (or Carl Herman) Veetering (or Vettering), a recluse about whom little is known. The Ray’s tone was, in the words of Rick Fields, “ironic, light, saucy, self-assured ... one-hundred-percent American Buddhist” (Fields, 1981), which was by all means a novel development in that time and place. It ceased publication in 1894. Elsewhere, six white San Franciscans, working with Japanese Jodo Shinshu missionaries, established the Dharma Sangha of Buddha in 1900 and began publishing a bimonthly magazine, The Light of Dharma. In Illinois, Paul Carus wrote further books about Buddhism and attempted setting portions of Buddhist scripture to Western classical music. 

The early 20th century
In the first half of the 20th century, it would prove to be Buddhist teachers from Japan who played the most active role in disseminating Buddhism to the American public, perhaps because Japan was the most developed and self-confident Buddhist country at the time. In 1905, Soyen Shaku was invited to stay in the United States by Mr. and Mrs. Russell, a wealthy American couple. He lived for nine months in their home near San Francisco, where he established a small zendo in their home and gave regular zazen lessons, making him the first Zen Buddhist priest to teach in North America. This short sojourn eventually produced an effect on American Buddhism that continues to the present. Shortly after Shaku settled into his erstwhile home, he was followed by Nyogen Senzaki, a young monk from Shaku’s home temple in Japan. Senzaki briefly worked for the Russell family and then, expressing his desire to stay in America, he was reportedly advised by Shaku to spend seventeen years as an ordinary worker before teaching Buddhism. Thus, it was in 1922 that Senzaki first rented a hall and gave an English talk on a paper by Soyen Shaku; his periodic talks at different locations became known as the “floating zendo”. In 1931, he established a permanent sitting hall in Los Angeles, where he would teach until his death in 1958. 
Another Zen teacher, Sokatsu Shaku, one of Soyen Shaku’s senior students, arrived in late 1906. Although he stayed only a few years and had limited contact with the English-speaking public, one of his disciples, Shigetsu Sasaki, made a permanent home. Sasaki, better known under his monastic name, Sokei-an, spent a few years wandering the west coast of the United States, at one point living among American Indians near Seattle, and reached New York City in 1916. After completing his training and being ordained in 1928, he returned to New York to teach. In 1931, his small group incorporated as the Buddhist Society of America, later renamed the First Zen Institute of America. By the late 1930s, one of his most active supporters was Ruth Fuller Everett, a British socialite and the mother-in-law of Alan Watts. Shortly before Sokei-an’s death in 1945, he and Everett would wed, at which point she took the name Ruth Fuller Sasaki. 
In 1914, under the leadership of Koyu Uchida, who succeeded Shuye Sonoda as the head of Jodo Shinshu missionary effort in North America, several Japanese Buddhist congregations formed the Buddhist Mission of North America (BMNA). This organization would later form the basis of the Buddhist Churches of America, currently the largest and most influential ethnic-based Buddhist organization in the U.S. The BMNA focused primarily on social and cultural activities for and ministering to Japanese American communities. In the late 1920s, it first began to develop programs to train English-speaking priests, for the benefit of the growing number of American-born parishioners. Also, in 1927, the Soto sect of Japanese Zen opened its own mission with Zenshuji temple in Los Angeles, although it did not make attempts at the time to attract non-Japanese members. 
One American who made his own attempt to establish an American Buddhist movement was Dwight Goddard (1861-1939). Goddard had been a Christian missionary to China, when he first came in contact with Buddhism. In 1928, he spent a year living at a Zen monastery in Japan. In 1934, he founded “The Followers of Buddha, an American Brotherhood”, with the goal of applying the traditional monastic structure of Buddhism more strictly than Senzaki and Sokei-an. The group was largely unsuccessful: no Americans were recruited to join as monks and attempts failed to attract a Chinese Chan (Zen) master to come to the United States. However, Goddard’s efforts as an author and publisher bore considerable fruit. In 1930, he began publishing ZEN: A Buddhist Magazine. In 1932, he collaborated with D. T. Suzuki on a translation of the Lankavatara Sutra. That same year, he published the first edition of A Buddhist Bible, an anthology of Buddhist scriptures focusing on those used in Chinese and Japanese Zen, which was enormously influential. 
However, another Japanese person, also an associate of Soyen Shaku’s, had an even greater literary impact. This was D. T. Suzuki. At the World Parliament of Religions in 1893, Paul Carus befriended Soyen Shaku and requested his help in translating and preparing Oriental spiritual literature for publication in the West. Shaku instead recommended Suzuki, then a young scholar and former disciple of his. Starting in 1897, Suzuki worked from Dr. Carus’s home in Illinois; his first projects were translations of the Tao Te Ching and Asvaghosa’s Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana. At the same time, Suzuki began writing his first major book, Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism, which was published in 1907. Suzuki returned to Japan in 1909 and married an American Theosophist and Radcliffe graduate in 1911. Through English language essays and books, such as Essays in Zen Buddhism (1927), he established himself as the most visible literary expositor of Zen Buddhism, its unofficial goodwill ambassador to Western readers, until his death in 1966. His 1949 book, An Introduction to Zen Buddhism, featured a 30-page introduction by Carl Jung, an emblem of the deepening relationship between Buddhism and major Western thinkers. 

Modern American Buddhism

Some scholars, such as Charles Prebish, have suggested that the social phenomenon of Buddhism in America can be seen to be comprised of three broad types. The oldest and largest of these is “immigrant” or “ethnic Buddhism”, those Buddhist traditions that arrived in America along with immigrants who were already believers and that largely remained with those immigrants and their descendants. The next oldest and arguably the most visible and best-heralded type is referred to as “import Buddhism”, because it came to America largely in response to the demand of interested American converts who sought it out, either by going abroad or by supporting foreign teachers; this is sometimes also called “elite Buddhism” because its practitioners, especially early in the process, tended to come from social elites. The newest trend in Buddhism is “export” or “evangelical Buddhism”, groups which are based in another country and who are actively recruiting members in America from various backgrounds; by far the most successful of these has been Soka Gakkai, which will be discussed below. 
Immigrant Buddhists
Immigrant Buddhist congregations in North America come in an extremely wide variety, exactly as wide a variety as exists in the different peoples of Asian Buddhist extraction who have settled there. The New World is home to Chinese Buddhists, Japanese Buddhists, Korean Buddhists, Sri Lankan Buddhists, Vietnamese Buddhists, Thai Buddhists, and Buddhists with family backgrounds in nearly every Buddhist country and region in the world. The passage of the 1965 Immigration Act in the United States greatly increased the number of immigrants arriving from China, Vietnam, and the Theravada-practicing countries of Southeast Asia. 
It is common for Buddhist temples and societies to serve as foci for the social life of an immigrant community, helping to maintain a connection to Old World traditions in a foreign environment. However, as the passing of time produces congregations increasingly dominated by persons born in America, which is especially common among Japanese Buddhists, questions arise about how their religious customs should adapt. 
The largest and most influential national immigrant Buddhist organization in the United States is the Buddhist Churches of America and the Honpa Hongwanji Mission of Hawaii. The BCA is an affiliate of Japan’s Nishi Hongwanji, a sect of Jodo Shinshu, which is in turn a form of Pure Land Buddhism. Tracing its roots to the Young Men’s Buddhist Association founded in San Francisco at the end of the 19th century and the Buddhist Mission of North America founded in 1914, it took its current form in 1944. All of the Buddhist Mission’s leadership, along with almost the entire Japanese American population, had been interned during World War II. The name Buddhist Churches of America was adopted at Topaz Relocation Center in Utah; the use of the word “church”, which normally implies a Christian house of worship, was significant. After internment ended, some members returned to the West Coast and revitalized churches there, while a number of others moved to the Midwest and built new churches. During the 1960s and 1970s, the BCA was in a growth phase and was very successful at fund-raising. It also began to publish two periodicals, one in Japanese and one in English. However, since 1980, BCA membership has declined markedly. The Honpa Hongwanji Mission of Hawaii has 36 temples throughout the state of Hawaii. The history and organization of the Mission is quite similar to the BCA. 
It is interesting to note that, while a very large majority of the Buddhist Churches of America’s membership are ethnically Japanese, it does have some members from non-Asian backgrounds. Thus, it can be seen as having some, currently very limited, aspects of an export Buddhist institution. As declining involvement by its ethnic community creates questions about its future, there has been internal discussion as to whether it should devote more attention to attracting the broader public. 
Another institution with some appeal both to a specific ethnic group as well as to Americans generally is Hsi Lai Temple in Hacienda Heights, California. Hsi Lai is the American headquarters of Fo Guang Shan, an enormously successful modern Buddhist group in Taiwan. Hsi Lai was built in 1988 at a cost of $10 million and is often described as the largest Buddhist temple in the Western hemisphere. Although it continues to cater primarily to Chinese Americans, it also has regular services and outreach programs in English. Hsi Lai was at the center of a bizarre incident in the history of American Buddhism when a 1996 fund-raising event by Vice President Al Gore provoked a controversy; at the time Hsi Lai was often referred to in the media as simply “the Buddhist temple”. 

Imported Buddhists

Since Henry Steele Olcott travelled to Sri Lanka in 1880, interested Americans have sought out Buddhist teachers from a variety of countries in Asia, many of which have now established their teachings in America. The three most notable trends of this type are Zen, Tibetan Buddhism, and Vipassana, which is an outgrowth of Theravada Buddhism. Because its membership tends strongly to be among educated, white, native English speakers, imported Buddhism has come to enjoy a higher level of prominence and prestige than other types of Buddhism in America. 
Zen
Beginning with Soyen Shaku’s invitation to San Francisco and then the ministries of Nyogen Senzaki and Sokei-an, Zen Buddhism was the first import Buddhist trend to put down roots in North America. In the late 1940s and 1950s, writers associated with the Beat Movement, including Gary Snyder, Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, and Kenneth Rexroth, took a serious interest in Zen, which helped increase its visibility. In 1951, an octogenarian Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki returned to the United States to take a visiting professorship at Columbia University, where he began a long series of public lectures on Zen; Kerouac and Ginsberg were among the attendees. In 1956, the Zen Studies Society was formed to support his work. After moving to Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1957, Suzuki was also involved in founding the Cambridge Buddhist Association, which was likely the first Buddhist group in America which was dedicated primarily to practicing zazen meditation. The Zen Studies Society, which had become completely dormant when Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki left Columbia, would be revived in 1965 by Eido Tai Shimano, a New York–based Rinzai Zen teacher. 
One of the most influential figures in 20th-century American Zen was Shunryu Suzuki. After serving as a temple priest in Japan, Suzuki requested to be sent to America, and, in 1959, at the age of 54, he travelled to San Francisco to manage Sokoji, the city’s Soto sect mission. When he arrived, his congregation consisted almost exclusively of older Japanese people, although his predecessors had begun to make some efforts at a broader outreach. Suzuki himself proved to be more comfortable teaching Americans than Japanese. He quickly attracted a group which met for regular zazen sittings and lectures in English. The group incorporated as the San Francisco Zen Center and, in 1966, purchased a tract of land near Los Padres National Forest to begin building Tassajara Zen Mountain Center, described as the first Buddhist training monastery located outside of Asia. In 1969, Suzuki left Sokoji when the Zen Center started its own new temple in San Francisco, operating largely independently of the Soto Sect in Japan. In 1970, Zen Mind, Beginner’s Mind, an edited collection of talks given by Suzuki, was published and became one of the most popular brief introductions to Zen practice. The San Francisco Zen Center remains one of America’s largest and most influential Buddhist groups and is now part of a network of related centers. 
Sanbo Kyodan Zen is a contemporary Japanese Zen lineage which had an impact in the West disproportionate to its size in Japan. It is rooted in the reformist teachings of Harada Daiun (1871-1961) and his disciple Yasutani Hakuun (1885-1971), who argued that the existing Zen institutions of Japan, the Soto and Rinzai sects, had become complacent and, with few exceptions, were unable to teach real Dharma. Harada had studied with both Soto and Rinzai teachers and Yasutani founded Sanbo Kyodan in 1954 to preserve what he saw as the vital core of teachings from both schools. Sanbo Kyodan’s first American member was Philip Kapleau, who first travelled to Japan in 1945 as a court reporter for the war crimes trials. In 1947, Kapleau visited D. T. Suzuki at Engaku-ji in Japan and in the early 1950s, he was a frequent attendee of Suzuki’s Columbia lectures. In 1953, he returned to Japan, where he met with Nakagawa Soen, a protégé of Nyogen Senzaki. At Nakagawa’s recommendation, he began to study with Harada and later with Yasutani, whose disciple he became. In 1965, he published a book, The Three Pillars of Zen, which recorded a set of talks by Yasutani outlining his approach to practice, along with transcripts of dokusan interviews and some additional texts. The book quickly became popular in America and Europe, contributing to the prominence of the Sanbo Kyodan approach to Zen. Later in 1965, Kapleau returned to America and, in 1966, established the Rochester Zen Center in Rochester, New York, making him the first American-born Zen priest to found a training temple. In 1967, Kapleau had a falling out with Yasutani over some of Kapleau’s moves to Americanize the style of his temple, after which it became independent of Sanbo Kyodan. The Rochester Zen Center is now part of a network of related centers in the United States, Canada, Europe, Mexico, and New Zealand, referred to collectively as the Cloud Water Sangha. One of Kapleau’s most notable early disciples was Toni Packer, who herself left Rochester in 1981 to found a nonsectarian meditation center, not specifically Buddhist or Zen. 
Robert Aitken is another important American member of Sanbo Kyodan. He was first introduced to Zen as a prisoner in Japan during the Second World War. After returning to the United States, he began studying with Nyogen Senzaki in Los Angeles in the early 1950s. In 1959, while still a Zen student himself, he founded the Diamond Sangha, a zendo in Honolulu, Hawaii. Three years later, the Diamond Sangha hosted the first U.S. visit by Yasutani Hakuun, who would visit various locations in the U.S. six more times before 1969. Aitken travelled frequently to Japan and became a disciple of Yamada Koun, Yasutani’s successor as head of the Sanbo Kyodan. Aitken became a dharma heir of Yamada’s, authored more than ten books, and developed the Diamond Sangha into an international network with temples in the United States, Argentina, Germany, and Australia. In 1995, he and his organization split with Sanbo Kyodan in response to reorganization of the latter following Yamada’s death. The Pacific Zen Institute led by John Tarrant, Aitken’s first Dharma successor continues as an independent Zen line. 
Another influential Japanese Zen teacher was Taizan Maezumi, who arrived as a young priest to serve at Zenshuji, the North American Soto sect headquarters in Los Angeles, in 1956. Like Shunryu Suzuki, he showed considerable interest in teaching Zen to Americans of various backgrounds and, by the mid-1960s, had formed a regular zazen group. In 1967, he and his supporters founded the Zen Center of Los Angeles. He was later instrumental in establishing the Kuroda Institute and the Soto Zen Buddhist Association, the latter an organization of American teachers with ties to the Soto tradition. In addition to his membership in Soto, Maezumi was also recognized as an heir by a Rinzai teacher and by Yasutani Hakuun of the Sanbo Kyodan. Maezumi, in turn, had several American dharma heirs who have become prominent, such as Bernie Glassman, John Daido Loori, Charlotte Joko Beck, and Dennis Genpo Merzel. His successors and their network of centers have organized as the White Plum Asanga.
Not all the successful Zen teachers in the United States have been from Japanese traditions. There have also been teachers of Chinese Zen (also known as Chan), Korean Zen (or Seon), and Vietnamese Zen (or Thien). 
The first Chinese Buddhist priest to teach Westerners in America was Hsuan Hua, a disciple of the preeminent 20th-century Chan master, Hsu Yun. In 1962, Hsuan Hua moved to San Francisco’s Chinatown, where, in addition to Zen, he taught Chinese Pure Land, Tiantai, Vinaya, and Vajrayana Buddhism. Initially, his students were mostly ethnic Chinese, but he eventually attracted a range of followers. In 1970, Hsuan Hua founded Gold Mountain Monastery in San Francisco and in 1976 he established a retreat center, the City of Ten Thousand Buddhas, on a 237 acre (959,000 m²) property near Ukiah, California. These monasteries are noted for their close adherence to the Vinaya, the austere traditional Buddhist monastic code. Hsuan Hua also founded the Buddhist Text Translation Society, which works on the translation of scriptures into English. 
Another Chinese Zen teacher with a Western following is Sheng-yen, a master trained in both the Caodong and Linji schools (equivalent to the Japanese Soto and Rinzai, respectively). He first visited the United States in 1978 under the sponsorship of the Buddhist Association of the United States, an organization of Chinese American Buddhists. In 1980, he founded the Chan Mediation Society in Queens, New York. In 1985, he founded the Chung-hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies in Taiwan, which now sponsors a variety of Chinese Zen activities in the United States. 
The most prominent Korean Zen teacher in America was Seung Sahn. Seung Sahn had been the abbot of a temple in Seoul and had also lived in Hong Kong and Japan when, in 1972, not speaking any English, he decided to move to America. On the flight to Los Angeles, a Korean American passenger offered him a job at a laundry in Providence, Rhode Island, the city which was to become the headquarters of Seung Sahn’s Kwan Um School of Zen. Shortly after arriving in Providence, he attracted a group of American students and founded the Providence Zen Center. The affiliated Kwan Um School now has more than 100 Zen centers on six continents. Another notable Korean Zen teacher in America is Samu Sunim, who moved to America in 1968 and founded Toronto’s Zen Buddhist Temple in 1971. He is now the head of the Buddhist Society for Compassionate Wisdom, which has temples in Ann Arbor, Chicago, and Mexico City. 
Two notable Vietnamese Zen teachers have been influential in America: Thich Thien-An and Thich Nhat Hanh. Thich Thien-An came to America in 1966 as a visiting professor at UCLA and taught traditional Thien meditation. Thich Nhat Hanh was a monk in Vietnam during the Vietnam War, during which he was a peace activist. In response to these activities, he was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1967 by Martin Luther King, Jr. In 1966, he left Vietnam in exile and now resides at Plum Village, a monastery in France. He has written more than one hundred books about Buddhism, which have made him one of the very few most prominent Buddhist authors among the general readership in the West. In his books and talks, Thich Nhat Hanh emphasizes mindfulness (sati) as the most important practice in daily life. 
Tibetan Buddhism
Perhaps the most widely visible Buddhist teacher in the world is Tenzin Gyatso, the current Dalai Lama, who first visited the United States in 1979. His early life was depicted in glowing terms in Hollywood films such as Kundun and Seven Years in Tibet. He has attracted celebrity religious followers such as Richard Gere and Adam Yauch. The first Western-born Tibetan Buddhist monk was Robert A. F. Thurman, now a noted academic supporter of the Dalai Lama. The Dalai Lama maintains a North American headquarters at Namgyal Monastery in Ithaca, New York. 
The best-known Tibetan Buddhist lama to live in the United States was Chögyam Trungpa. Trungpa, part of the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism, moved to England in 1963 and founded a temple in Scotland, and then relocated to Barnet, Vermont, and Boulder, Colorado in 1970. He established a series of what he named Dharmadhatu meditation centers, which were eventually organized under a national umbrella group called Vajradhatu (later to become Shambhala International). The methods and techniques he developed for teaching Westerners he termed Shambhala Training. Following Trungpa’s death, his followers built the Great Stupa of Dharmakaya, a traditional reliquary monument, near Red Feather Lakes, Colorado. Consecrated in 2001, it is the largest stupa in the United States.
The first Tibetan Buddhist lama to come to the United States was Geshe Ngawang Wangyal, a Kalmyk-Mongolian of the Gelug lineage, who came to the United States in 1955 and founded the “Lamaist Buddhist Monastery of America” in New Jersey in 1958. Among his students were the future western scholars Robert Thurman, Jeffrey Hopkins and Alexander Berzin. Other early arrivals included Deshung Rinpoche, a Sakya lama who settled in Seattle, WA, in 1960, and Tarthang Tulku Rinpoche, the first Nyingma teacher in America, who arrived in the U.S. in 1968 and established the “Tibetan Nyingma Meditation Center” in Berkeley, California in 1969. 
There are four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism: the Gelug, the Kagyu, the Nyingma, and the Sakya. Of these, the greatest impact in the West was made by the Gelug, which is led by the Dalai Lama, and the Kagyu, specifically its Karma Kagyu branch, which is led by the Karmapa. As of the early 1990s, there were four significant strands of Kagyu practice in the United States: Chögyam Trungpa’s Shambhala movement; the Karma Triyana Choling, a network of centers affiliated directly with the Karmapa’s North American seat in Woodstock, New York; a network of centers founded by Kalu Rinpoche; and an organization established by Ole Nydahl, a Danish-born lama with many supporters in Europe.
In the 21st century, the Nyingma lineage is increasingly represented in the West, by both Western and Tibetan teachers. Lama Surya Das is a Western-born teacher carrying on the great rimé, or non-sectarian, branch of Tibetan Buddhism. H.E. Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche, before his death in 2002, founded centers in Seattle and Brazil. Khandro Rinpoche is a modern female Tibetan teacher who has a strong presence in America. Jetsunma Ahkon Lhamo, the first Western woman to be recognized and enthroned as a Tulku, has also established Nyingma centers in Sedona, AZ and Poolesville, MD.
The Gelug tradition is most strongly represented in America by the Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition (FPMT), founded by Lama Thubten Yeshe and Lama Zopa. Another prominent Gelugpa teacher is Geshe Michael Roach, the first American to be awarded a Geshe degree, who has established centers in New York, NY, and at Diamond Mountain University in Arizona. 
Also quite active in the United States is the self-described New Kadampa Tradition (NKT) established by Geshe Kelsang Gyatso. A schismatic offshoot of the Gelug school founded in the 1990s in the UK, the NKT has over 50 Kadampa (NKT) Buddhist Centers and branches in the United States. Geshe Kelsang Gyatso is the only Tibetan associated with the movement—most of its followers are Westerners or in the Far East, principally in Hong Kong and Singapore. 
Vipassana
Vipassana, also referred to by the rough translation “insight meditation” is an ancient meditative practice described in the Pali Canon of the Theravada school of Buddhism, and in similar scriptures of other schools. Vipassana also refers to a distinct movement which was begun in the 20th century by reformers such as Mahasi Sayadaw, a Burmese monk. Mahasi Sayadaw was a Theravada bhikkhu and Vipassana is rooted in the Theravada teachings, but its goal is to simplify ritual and other peripheral activities in order to make meditative practice more effective and available both to monks and to laypeople. This openness to lay involvement is an important development in Theravada, which has sometimes appeared to focus exclusively on monasticism. 
In 1965, monks from Sri Lanka established the Washington Buddhist Vihara in Washington, D.C., the first Theravada monastic community in the United States. The Vihara was fairly accessible to English-speakers, and naturally vipassana meditation was part of its activities. However, the direct influence of the Vipassana movement would not reach the U.S. until a group of Americans returned there in the early 1970s after studying with Vipassana master in Asia. Joseph Goldstein, after journeying to Southeast Asia with the Peace Corps, had lived in Bodhgaya, where he was a student of Anagarika Munindra, the head monk of Mahabodhi Temple. Jack Kornfield had also been in the Peace Corps in Southeast Asia, after which he studied and ordained in the Thai Forest Tradition under Ajahn Chah, who was perhaps the most influential figure in 20th century Thai Buddhism. Sharon Salzberg went to India in 1971 as a spiritual seeker and studied with Dipa Ma, a former Calcutta housewife trained in vipassana. 
Goldstein and Kornfield met in 1974 while teaching at the Naropa Institute in Colorado. The next year, Goldstein, Kornfield, and Salzberg, who had very recently returned from Calcutta, along with Jacqueline Schwarz, founded the Insight Meditation Society on an 80 acre (324,000 m²) property near Barre, Massachusetts. IMS became the central Vipassana instituation in America, hosting visits by Mahasi Sayadaw, Munindra, Ajahn Chah, and Dipa Ma. In 1981, Kornfield moved to California, where he founded another Vipassana center, Spirit Rock Meditation Center, in Marin County. In 1985, Larry Rosenberg founded the Cambridge Insight Meditation Center in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Another important Vipassana center is the Vipassana Metta Foundation, located on Maui. 
In 1989, the Insight Meditation Center established the Barre Center for Buddhist Studies near the IMS headquarters, with the goal of promoting scholarly investigation of Buddhism from various perspectives. Its director is Mu Seong, a former Korean Zen monk. 
S. N. Goenka is a Burmese-born meditation teacher who can also be considered part of the Vipassana movement. His teacher, Sayagyi U Ba Khin of Burma, was a contemporary of Mahasi Sayadaw’s, and taught a style of Buddhism with similar emphasis on simplicity and accessibility to laypeople. Goenka has established a method of instruction which has proven very popular in Asia and throughout the world. In 1981, he established the Vipassana Research Institute based in Igatpuri, India. He and his students have built several active centers in North America. 
Exported Buddhists
Although ethnic-based institutions, such as Hsi Lai Temple and the Buddhist Churches of America, show some evangelical tendencies, there is only one Buddhist group in North America which has focused on recruiting converts from among the general public and been successful: Soka Gakkai, a Japan-based society which promotes Nichiren Buddhism. 
Soka Gakkai, which literally means “Establishing Value Education Society”, was founded in Japan in 1930 as a fraternal auxiliary to Nichiren Shoshu, the largest sect of Nichiren Buddhism. It was perhaps the most successful of Japan’s new religious movements, which enjoyed tremendous growth after the end of the Second World War. During the occupation of Japan, some American soldiers became aware of it, and it was the Japanese wives of veterans who became the first active Soka Gakkai members in the West. A U.S. branch was formally organized on October 13, 1960. Its Korean-Japanese leader took the name George M. Williams to emphasize his commitment to reaching the English-speaking public. Soka Gakkai expanded rapidly in the U.S. through an aggressive recruitment technique called shakubuku. One of the results of this outreach is that Soka Gakkai has been much more effective than any other group at attracting non-Asian minority converts, chiefly African American and Latino, to Buddhism. It has also been successful in attracting the support of celebrities, such as Tina Turner, Herbie Hancock, and Orlando Bloom. 
Soka Gakkai has no priests of its own and was originally part of Nichiren Shoshu, a formal religious sect in Japan. In fact, its United States branch was originally named Nichiren Shoshu America (NSA). However, in 1991 Soka Gakkai split from Nichiren Shoshu and became a separate organization; at that time, the U.S. branch changed its name to Soka Gakkai International - United States of America (SGI-USA). Nichiren Shoshu proper maintains six temples of its own in the U.S. and another Nichiren group exists which is primarily the domain of ethnic Japanese. 
The main religious practice of Soka Gakkai members, like other Nichiren Buddhists, is chanting the mantra Nam Myoho Renge Kyo and sections of the Lotus Sutra. Unlike imported Buddhist trends such as Zen, Vipassana, and Tibetan Buddhism, Soka Gakkai does not teach meditative techniques other than chanting. 
Demographics of Buddhism in the United States
For various reasons, it is not easy to arrive at an accurate idea of the number of Buddhists in the United States. The simplest reason is that it is not at all clear how to define who is and who is not a Buddhist. The easiest and most intuitive definition is one based on self-description, but this has its pitfalls. Because Buddhism exists as a cultural concept in American society, there may be individuals who describe themselves as Buddhists but have essentially no knowledge of commitment to Buddhism as a religion or practice; on the other hand, others may be deeply involved in meditation and committed to the Buddhadharma, but may refuse the label “Buddhist”. Despite these difficulties, several scholars have investigated this question. Most studies have indicated a Buddhist population in the United States of between 1 and 4 million. The U.S. State Department’s International Religious Freedom Report for 2004 indicates that 1.0% of the U.S. population is Buddhist, which would mean a total of 3,000,000 Buddhists (give or take about 100,000). Other estimates, perhaps relying on a greater degree of intuition, are larger: in the 1990s, Robert A. F. Thurman stated his opinion that there were 5 to 6 million Buddhists in America, and others might speculate there are more. Whatever the total number, it appears that roughly 75 to 80 percent of Buddhists in the U.S. are of Asian descent and inherited Buddhism as a family tradition; the remaining 20 to 25 percent are non-Asians. 
Ethnic divide
Discussion about Buddhism in America has sometimes focused on the issue of the visible ethnic divide separating ethnic Buddhist congregations from imported Buddhist groups. Although many Zen and Tibetan Buddhist temples were founded by Asians, they now tend to attract very few Asian-American members. With the important exception of Soka Gakkai, almost all active Buddhist groups in America can be readily classified as either ethnic or imported Buddhism based on the demographics of their membership. There is often very limited contact between these Buddhists of different ethnic groups. This divide can be disturbing in view of the historical necessity of relying on Asian peoples to transmit Buddhism, and in light of ongoing and complex tensions surrounding ethnicity and immigration in America. Some Asian-American Buddhists feel that their non-Asian counterparts ignore the many contributions of their ethnic communities toward the development of American Buddhism. 
However, the cultural divide should not necessarily be seen as pernicious. It is often argued that the differences between Buddhist groups arise benignly from the differing needs and interests of those involved. Convert Buddhists tend to be interested in meditation and philosophy, in some cases eschewing the trappings of religiosity altogether. On the other hand, for immigrants and their descendants, preserving tradition and maintaining a social framework assume a much greater relative importance, making their approach to religion naturally more conservative. Further, Kenneth K. Tanaka suggests, based on a survey of Asian-American Buddhists in San Francisco, that “many Asian-American Buddhists view non-Asian Buddhism as still in a formative, experimental stage” and yet they believe that it “could eventually mature into a religious expression of exceptional quality”.
Additional questions come from the demographics within import Buddhism. Researchers and casual observers alike report that the vast majority of American converts practicing at Buddhist centers are white people with Christian or Jewish backgrounds. Only Soka Gakkai has attracted significant numbers of black or Latino members. A variety of ideas have been broached regarding the nature, causes, and significance of this racial uniformity. A key question is the degree of importance ascribed to discrimination, which is suggested to be mostly unconscious, on the part of white converts toward potential minority converts. To some extent, the racial divide is indicative of a class divide, because convert Buddhists tend strongly to be drawn from the more educated segments of society. Among the African American Buddhists who have commented on the dynamics of the racial divide in convert Buddhism are Jan Willis and Charles R. Johnson.
Trends in American Buddhism
Engaged Buddhism
An important trend that has developed in Buddhism in the West is socially engaged Buddhism. While some critics have asserted that the term is redundant, as it is mistaken to believe that Buddhism in the past has not affected and been affected by the surrounding society, others have suggested that Buddhism is sometimes seen as too quietist and passive toward public life. This is particularly true in the West, where almost all converts to Buddhism come to it outside of an existing family or community tradition. Engaged Buddhism is an attempt to apply Buddhist values to larger social problems, including war and environmental concerns. The term engaged Buddhism was coined by Thich Nhat Hanh, who developed the idea during his years as a peace activist in Vietnam. The most notable engaged Buddhist organization is the Buddhist Peace Fellowship, which was founded in 1978 by Robert Aitken, Anne Aitken, Nelson Foster, and others and received early assistance from Gary Snyder, Jack Kornfield, and Joanna Macy. Another engaged Buddhist group is the Zen Peacemaker Order, which was founded in 1996 by Bernie Glassman and Sandra Jishu Holmes. 
Buddhist education in the United States
A variety of Buddhist groups have established institutions of higher learning in America. The first four-year Buddhist college in the U.S. was the Naropa Institute (now Naropa University), which was founded in 1974 by Chögyam Trungpa. It has enjoyed consistent involvement both from convert Buddhists and counterculture personalities, such as Allen Ginsberg, who christened the Institute’s poetry department the “Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics”. Naropa is currently fully accredited and offers degrees in some subjects not directly related to Buddhism. Another Buddhist university is the University of the West, which is affiliated with Hsi Lai Temple and was until recently called Hsi Lai University. Soka Gakkai also sponsors two branches of Soka University, which is based in Japan. The City of Ten Thousand Buddhas is the site of Dharma Realm Buddhist University, a four-year college teaching courses primarily related to Buddhism but including some general-interest subjects. The Buddhist Churches of America runs its Institute of Buddhist Studies in Berkeley, California, which offers a master’s degree in Buddhist Studies but is primarily a seminary affiliated with the Graduate Theological Union. It recently opened a Jodo Shinshu Center also in Berkeley. 
The first Buddhist high school in the United States, Developing Virtue Secondary School, was founded in 1981 by the Dharma Realm Buddhist Association at their branch monastery in the City of Ten Thousand Buddhas in Ukiah, California. Another Buddhist high school, the Pacific Buddhist Academy, opened in Honolulu in 2003. It is affiliated with the Hompa Hongwanji Jodo Shinshu mission, which had already run an elementary and middle school. 

Korean

Korea

Korean Buddhism is distinguished from other forms of Buddhism by attempting to resolve inconsistencies in Chinese Mahayana Buddhism, at least some Koreans and researchers think so. Early Korean monks considered the traditions they received from China internally inconsistent, thus a new holistic approach to Buddhism was developed. This approach is characteristic of virtually all major Korean thinkers, and has resulted in a distinct variation of Buddhism, which Wonhyo (617–686) called the Tongbulgyo (“interpenetrated Buddhism”). 

Korean Buddhism consists mostly of the Seon lineage. Seon has a strong relationship with other Mahayana traditions that bear the imprint of Chinese Chan teachings, as well as the closely related Japanese Zen. Other sects, such as the Taego, the modern revival of the Cheontae lineage, and the newly formed Won, have also attracted sizable followings. 
Korean Buddhism has a long history. When Buddhism was originally introduced to Korea from China in 372, Shamanism was the indigenous religion. Korean Shamanism held three spirits in especially high regard: Sanshin (the Mountain Spirit), Toksong (the Recluse) and Chilsong (the Spirit of the Seven Stars, the Big Dipper). Korean Buddhism accepted and absorbed these three spirits and, even today, special shrines are set aside for them in many temples. The Mountain Spirit receives particular recognition in an attempt to appease the local mountain spirits. This blend of Buddhism and Shamanism became known as Korean Buddhism, although the fundamental teachings of the Buddha remained. 
Though initially wide accepted and even supported as the state ideology during the Goryeo period, Buddhism in Korea suffered extreme repression during the Joseon Dynasty, which lasted for several hundred years. During this period, Neo-Confucian ideology overcame the prior dominance of Buddhism. 
Buddhism in Korea remained subdued until the end of the Joseon period, when its position was strengthened somewhat by the Japanese occupation from 1910 to 1945. After World War II, the Seon school of Korean Buddhism once again gained acceptance. 
With Christianity becoming influential in Korea, it is estimated that Buddhists in South Korea now account for nearly one-third of the country’s population. In officially atheist North Korea, Buddhists make up 2% of the population. 
When Buddhism was introduced to Korea in the 4th century AD, the Korean peninsula was politically subdivided into three kingdoms: Goguryeo in the north, Baekje in the southwest, and Silla in the southeast. 
In 372 the Chinese monk Sundo was sent to the court of the King Sosurim of Goguryeo. He brought Chinese texts and statues and the Goguryeo royalty quickly accepted his teachings. Buddhism in China was in a rudimentary form then, consisting of the law of cause and effect and the search for happiness. This had much in common with the predominant Shamanism, which likely led to the quick assimilation of Buddhism by the people of Goguryeo. 
In 384, the Serindian monk Maranant’a arrived in Baekje and the royal family received the similar strain of Buddhism he brought. King Asin proclaimed, “People should believe in Buddhism and seek happiness.” 
A small, separate federation called Gaya emerged for a short time on the southern coast between Baekje and the fast growing Shilla. It fell to an invasion in the mid sixth century before reaching maturity, however, and was annexed by Silla. 
Buddhism did not enter the kingdom of Silla until the 5th century. The common people were first attracted to Buddhism here, but there was resistance among the aristocrats. In 527, however, a prominent court official named Ichadon presented himself to King Pophung and announced he had become Buddhist. The king had him beheaded, but when the executioner cut off his head, it is said that milk poured out instead of blood. Paintings of this are in the temple at Haein-sa and a stone monument honoring his martyrdom is in the National Museum of Kyongju. 
During the reign of the next king, King Chinhung, the growth of Buddhism was encouraged – eventually being recognized as the national religion of Silla. Additionally, selected young men were physically and spiritually trained at Hwarangdo according to Buddhist principles to be able to defend the kingdom. The King later became a monk himself. 
Many Korean Buddhist monks traveled to China in order to study the Buddha dharma in late Three Kingdoms Period, especially late 6th century. They brought back numerous scriptures from abroad and conducted missionary activities throughout Korea and Japan. The date of the first mission to Japan is unclear, but it is reported that a second detachment of scholars was sent to Japan upon invitation by the Japanese rulers in 577. The strong Korean influence on the development of Buddhism in Japan continued through the unified Silla period; only in the 8th or 9th century did independent study by Japanese monks begin in significant numbers. 
Several schools of thought developed in Korea during these early times: the Samnon school focused on the Indian Madhyamika (Middle Path) doctrine; the Gyeyul school was mainly concerned with the study and implementation of moral discipline (śīla); and the Yeolban school was based in the themes of the Mahaparinirvana-sutra. 
Toward the end of the Three Kingdoms Period, the Wonyung school was formed. It would lead the actualization of the metaphysics of interpenetration as found in the Huayan Jing and soon was considered the premier school, especially among the educated aristocracy. This school was later known as Hwaeom and was the longest lasting of these “imported” schools. It had strong ties with the Beopseong, the indigenous Korean school of thought. 
The monk Jajang is credited with having been a major force in the adoption of Buddhism as a national religion, who is also known for participation in founding the Korean sangha. Another great scholar during Silla Period was Won-hyo. He wrote many treatises and his philosophy centered on the unity and interrelatedness of all things. 
Buddhism was so successful during this period that many kings converted and cities/places were even renamed after famous places during the time of Buddha.
In 668, Silla kingdom succeeded in unifying the whole Korean peninsula, giving a period of political stability lasting about one hundred years. This led to a high tide in the scholarly studies of Buddhism in Korea. In general, the most popular areas of study were Wonyung, Yusik (“consciousness-only”), Jeongto (Pure Land), and the indigenous Korean Beopseong (“dharma-nature school”). 
During this time, the monk Wonhyo taught the “Pure Land” – practice of yeombul, and had a lasting influence on Buddhist thought in Korea. His work, which attempts a synthesis of divergent strands of Indian and Chinese Buddhist doctrine, makes use of the essence-function framework. His work was instrumental in the development of the dominant school of Korean Buddhist thought, known variously as Beopseong, Haedong and later as Jungdo (“Middle way”). 
Wonhyo’s friend Uisang went to Chang’an, where he studied under Huayan patriarchs Zhiyan (600-668) and Fazang (643-712). When he returned after twenty years, his work contributed to Hwaeom and became the predominant doctrinal influence on Korean Buddhism, together with Wonhyo’s tong bulgyo thought. 
As was the case in Tang Dynasty’s China, as well as the Nara and early Heian period in Japan, which are roughly contemporary to the Silla period, the intellectual developments of Silla Buddhism also brought significant cultural achievements in many areas, including painting, literature, sculpture, and architecture. During this period, many large and beautiful temples were built. Two crowning achievements were the temple Bulguksa and the cave-retreat of Seokguram. Bulguksa was especially famous for its jeweled pagodas, while Seokguram was known for the beauty of its stone sculpture. 
A new epoch in Korean Buddhism began during the latter Silla period with the birth of schools of Seon in Korea. Meaning “meditation,” the term is more widely known in the West in its Japanese variant Zen. Tension developed between the new meditational schools and the previously existing academically oriented schools, which were described by the term “gyo”, meaning “learning” or “study.” 
Beomnang (632-646), said to be a student of the Chinese master Daoxin (580-651), is generally credited with the initial transmission of Seon into Korea. Seon was popularized by Sinhaeng (704-779) in the latter part of the eighth century and by Doui (died in 825) at the beginning of the ninth century. From then on, many Koreans studied Chan in China, and upon their return established their own schools at various mountain monasteries with their leading disciples. Initially, the number of these schools was fixed at nine, and Korean Seon was termed as the “nine mountains” school at the time. 
Toward the end of the dynasty, Seon became dominant in its effect on the government and society. During the Goryeo period, Seon thoroughly became a “religion of the state,” receiving extensive support and privileges through connections with the ruling family and powerful members of the court. 
The most important figure of Seon in the Goryeo was Jinul (1158-1210). In his time, the sangha was in a crisis of external appearance and internal issues of doctrine. Buddhism had gradually become infected by secular tendencies and involvements, such as fortune-telling and the offering of prayers and rituals for success in secular endeavors. This resulted in the profusion of increasingly larger numbers of monks and nuns with questionable motivations. 
Jinul sought to establish a new movement within Korean Seon, which he called the “samadhi and prajna society” with goal of establishing a new community of disciplined, pure-minded practitioners. He eventually accomplished this mission with the founding of the Seonggwangsa monastery at Mt. Jogye. Jinul’s works are characterized by a thorough analysis and reformulation of the methodologies of Seon study and practice. 
Jinul created a “sudden enlightenment followed by gradual practice” dictum, which he outlined in a few relatively concise and accessible texts. From Dahui, Jinul also incorporated the gwanhwa method into his practice. This form of meditation is the main method taught in Korean Seon today. Jinul’s philosophical resolution of the Seon-Gyo conflict also brought a deep and lasting effect on Korean Buddhism.
In the latter half of the Goryeo was a decline due to corruption, a strong sentiment of anti-Buddhist rose. However, this period of relative decadence nevertheless produced some of Korea’s most renowned Seon masters, three important of whom were Gyeonghan Baeg’un (1298-1374), Taego Bou (1301-1382) and Naong Hyegeun (1320-1376). All three went to Yuan Dynasty China to learn the Linji gwanhwa teaching that had been popularized by Jinul. All three returned, and established the sharp, confrontational methods of the Imje school in their own teaching with hundreds of disciples. 
A significant historical event of the Goryeo period is the production of the first woodblock edition of the Tripitaka, the Tripitaka Koreana. Two editions were made: the first one completed from 1210 to 1231, and the second one from 1214 to 1259. The first edition was destroyed in a fire, during an attack by Mongol invaders in 1232, but the second edition is still in existence at Haeinsa in Gyeongsang province. This edition of the Tripitaka was of high quality, and served as the standard version of the Tripitaka in East Asia for almost 700 years. 
The Buddhist establishment at the end of the Goryeo period had become ridden with excesses. There were too many monks and nuns, a large percentage of whom were only in the sangha as a means of escaping taxation and/or government service. There were also far too many temples being supported, and too many elaborate rituals being carried out. The support of Buddhism had become a serious drain on the national economy. 
Since Joseon Dynasty was established in 1392, Buddhism had been gradually suppressed for the next 500 years. The number of temples was reduced, restrictions on membership in the sangha were installed, and Buddhist monks and nuns were literally chased into the mountains, forbidden to mix with society. Joseon Buddhism, which had started off under the so-called “five doctrinal and two meditational” schools system of the Goryeo, was condensed to two schools: Seon and Gyo. Eventually, these were further reduced to the single school of Seon.
During the Joseon period, the number of Buddhist monasteries dropped from several hundred to a mere thirty-six. Limits were placed on the number of clergy, land area, and ages for entering the sangha. When the final restrictions were in place, monks and nuns were prohibited from entering the cities. Buddhist funerals, and even begging, were outlawed. However, some rulers occasionally appeared who looked favorably upon Buddhism and did away with some of the more suppressive regulations. 
One of the most important reasons for the restoration of Buddhism to a position of minimal acceptance was the role of Buddhist monks in repelling the Japanese invasion of general Toyotomi Hideyoshi, which occurred between 1592 and 1598. The presence of the monks’ army was a critical factor in the eventual expulsion of the Japanese invaders. 
The Japanese occupation from 1910 to 1945 brought great suffering on the Korean people as a whole, and to the Korean sangha in particular, as it had to comply with an extensive set of Japanese regulations. However, there were some aspects of the occupation which were beneficial to Korean Buddhists. The fact that Japanese Buddhists demanded the right to proselytize in the cities brought about a lifting of the five-hundred year ban on monks and nuns entering cities. However, the formation of new Buddhist sects, such as Won Buddhism, and the presence of Christian missionaries during this period led to further turbulence in traditional Korean Buddhism. The Japanese Buddhist custom of allowing Buddhist priests to marry contradicted the lifestyle of Korean Buddhist monks and nuns, who traditionally lived in celibacy. 
When Korea was liberated from Japanese occupation in 1945, the celibate ordained members of the main sect of Korean Buddhism, Chogye, to take over for the married monks who ran the temples during the occupation. The new occupiers, however, brought with them their own religions, Christianity or secularism in the south and Marxism in the north.
Starting in the 1950s, Syngman Rhee and others worked to further divide and weaken the Buddhist Sangha in the country. Rhee campaigned in 1954 against the so-called “Japanized Buddhists”. Western education and scholarships and the empowerment of women and the poor caused divisions among Koreans. Specifically, a deep rift opened between married and celibate monks. The differences were so great that fistfights over the control of temples became frequent. Monks, mostly belonging to the Jogye order, threatened to kill themselves. Many of them were against the Japanized Buddhists. As the Buddhist riots continued, the influence of Buddhism lessened. Buddhism continued to lose followers to Christian missionaries, who were able to capitalize on these weaknesses with offers of rice, and give hope for the future. 
President Park Chung Hee attempted during his rule (1961-1979) to settle the dispute by building a unified pan-national Buddhist organization, but failed. However, he did succeed in allying himself with the celibate faction of the sangha. 
During the 1990s, conflicts between the South Korean government, Buddhist leaders and Christian denominations continued. The government accused Buddhist monks of immorality and some Christians used this to forward their missionary work. Some religious gatherings have even been claimed to turn to violence, with statues of Buddha and Dangun, the mythical founder of Korea, being burned. 
The Seon school, led by the dominant Jogye order, practices disciplined traditional Seon practice at a number of major mountain monasteries in Korea, often under the direction of highly regarded masters. Modern Seon practice is not far removed in content from the original practice of Jinul, who introduced the integrated combination of the practice of Gwanhwa meditation with the study of selected Buddhist texts. The Korean sangha life is markedly itinerant: while each monk has a “home” monastery, he will regularly travel throughout the mountains, staying as long as he wishes, studying and teaching in the style of whatever monastery is housing him. The Korean monastic training system has seen a steadily increasing influx of Western practitioner-aspirants in the second half of the twentieth century. However, there are relatively few Koreans who have converted to Buddhism from Christianity. 
Especially in Seoul, where Buddhism faces a growing pressure from Christianity, tension and suspicion between the Buddhist community, and Christians and the South Korean government, can be expected to increase. An exception to this has been the relations between Catholics and Buddhists, which have been much friendlier, with many Catholics approaching Buddhist temples or Catholic/Buddhist retreat centers to practice Seon meditation. Especially in regard to weddings, Christian customs have largely replaced their Buddhist counterparts. 

Nepal

Nepal

Nepal is among the earliest regions that embraced Buddhism. The birthplace of the founder of Buddhism Sakyamuni is Lumbini of Kapilavastu, today’s Rummindei in South Nepal.

Preliminary dissemination: In 520 BC, Sakyamuni and his disciples preached Buddhism in valleys in Nepal. In 265 BC, Indian King Ashoka and his daughter Princess Charumati to Lumbini for pilgrimage. He set up Pillars of Ashoka and built Stupas of Ashoka in Patan. After Princess Charumati’s marriage with a local royal, she built a monastery in her name and sent Indian monks for preaching Buddhism dharma in Nepal. The establishment of Lichchhavi Dynasty made Nepal the center for Buddhists to make a pilgrimage. Later, as Mahayana Buddhism was rising up, the founder of Yogacara Vasubandhu preached the religion in Nepal.
The concurrent popularity of Buddhism and Hinduism: In the 5th century, during the reign of Mana Deva of Lichchhavi Dynasty, Hinduism prospered in Nepal. Although Mana Deva himself is a follower of Vishnu, he respected Buddhism and ordered mass construction of monasteries and stupas. Chinese monk Faxian travelled to Kapilavastu, the birthplace of Buddha, in 405 and recorded the experience in his book Biography of Buddhism. In 406, Nepalese monk Buddhabhadra was invited by Chinese monk Zhiyan to visit Changan in China, during which time he preached Buddhism and translated Buddhavatamsaka-mahavai pul yasutra and Mahasamghika-vinaya. His translation work has proved that Bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism. His translation work has proved that Bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism was already popular in Nepal. Chinese envoy to Nepal Wang Xuance was overwhelmed by the majestic Buddhist structure in Nepal. King Amsvaman married his daughter Bhrkuti Devi to the ruler of the Tubo Kingdom Songtsan Gampo. When the princess travelled to Tubo, she brought Sakyamuni’s eight-year-old statue and other Buddhist articles and opened the road from India to Changan through Kathmandu and Lhasa. Since then, translation of Buddhism sutras in Tibet started and famous translators included Shilamandsu, Shangkara, etc. In 633, Chinese monk Xuanzang visited Kapilavastu and Varanasi and recorded his travel in Buddhist Records of the Western World. Chinese monks Xuanzhao, Daofang and Wukong as well as Silla’s monks Xuantai and Xuanke travelled through Nepal to and from India. Daosheng, Modisengke and Xuanhui died in Nepal. In post-Lichchhavi Dynasty, Buddhism and Hinduism coexisted in peace and harmony.
The fusion of Buddhism and Hinduism: From the end of the 8th century to the beginning of the 9th century, Hinduism in South Asian Subcontinent rejuvenated after Adi Shankara’s reform and facilitated its dissemination in Nepal. According to historical records, Adi Shankara visited Nepal in his senior years and promoted Hinduism by repressing Buddhism. Yet Buddhism was still popular in valleys and northeastern mountains. Several centuries later, the fusion of Buddhism and Hinduism led to the birth of Esoteric Buddhism and “Neo-Buddhism”. Mantrayana, Vajrayana, Sahajayana, Kalacakrayana and other main sects of Indian Esoteric Buddhism were widely disseminated in Nepal. Nepal is among the few regions in earliest days that held reverence for Siddhi in Sahajayana, which adopted the Mahayana’s dharma of “attainment of Buddhahood in self body”. Chanting Dohakosha has become a daily routine for Buddhists in Nepal.
The interaction of Hinduism and Esoteric Buddhism has blurred their division. Bodhisattva is common in Hindu temples and vice versa. The fusion has continued from Middle Age to modern times. Like Hinduism, caste gradually appears in Buddhism. Buddhists were divided into different castes and sub-castes with various jobs.
The mutual influence of India and Tibet: The dissemination of Esoteric Buddhism in Nepal, the immigration of Indian and Tibetan monks, frequent two-way visits and the dissemination of Tibetan Buddhism have all contributed to the prosperity of Buddhism in Nepal. In 743, a famous theorist of Svatantrika Madhyamaka in India was invited by Trisong Detsen to Tibet for preaching dharma. During his six-year stay in Nepal before the visit to Tibet, Santarakita disseminated Cittamatra and laid the foundation for building Swyoumbhunath. Master of Indian Esoteric Buddhism Padmasambhava stayed in Nepal for four years before going to Tibet. During the period, He studied Esoteric Buddhist dharma and built the Boudhanath in Kantipur. Kamalasila, Padmasambhava’s disciple was warmly welcomed by monks of Swyoumbhunath and Boudhanath when he travelled via Nepal. Avalokiteshvara visited Nepal in 1041, preached Kalacakrayana in Kathmandu Valley and Nici Pohlpa plain and built Shangcho Temple. The founder of Kagyu in Tibetan Buddhism Marpa, his disciple Milarepa and the famous translator Elnogbloidansesrab all studied and preached dharma in Nepal. Master of Esoteric Buddhism Damourshivami lived in Nepal for nine years. From the 11th to the 13th century, Muslim invaded Bangladesh and Bihar, devasting Vikramasilavihara in India. Buddhists fled from persecution to Nepal and Tibet and saved many Buddhist scriptures and articles, further stimulating the prosperity of Buddhism in Nepal. Sakya, Nyingma and other sects of Tibetan Buddhism were introduced to Nepal from the mid 11th century to the beginning of the 15th century; some of them still remain influential in modern times.
Achievement in Buddhism theory: Since the 11th century, Buddhist theory in Nepal gradually falls into four factions: Svatantrika, which emphasizes the self realization, both extrinsic and intrinsic, in all being; Ashivalika, which believes in self-serving, infinite and all-good god; Jarlemika, which holds that our understanding of the universe is the efforts based on avidya; and Yhedolhika, which believes in human’s wisdom and free will. The philosophical wisdom graduates from Indian and Tibetan Buddhists essence.
Current situation: Although Nepal holds Hinduism as the state religion, it protects the development of Buddhism as well. In recent years, traditional Buddhism continues to thrive and Theravada Buddhism is introduced to Nepal. In 1944, Nepalese monks Damouroka, Ghalusi, Sakyananda founded The Buddhist Renaissance Association in Sarnath (India) and Kathmandu (Nepal) to disseminate Theravada Buddhism. They built the Theravada temple Lhenka, translated Buddhist dharma into Pali language and published relevant research papers. In 1954, Nepalese Buddhist Delegation joined the sixth Buddhist gathering in Burma. With the support of UNESCO, Lumbini, the birthplace of Buddha, is under reconstruction.
According to the statistics in 1980s, there are 867 000 Buddhists, accounting for 6.1% of national population. They mainly live in southeast and central Nepal. Buddhists in southeast mountainous regions mainly believe in Tibetan school. As Nepal has close religious ties with Tibet, China and Nepal signed an agreement in 1956 on the facilitation of communication and pilgrimage of Buddhists.
Lumbini: The birthplace of Sakyamuni and world-class Buddhist shrine, it is located in Rupandehi District of Narayani Zone in South Nepal. In 623 BC, Sakyamuni was born in Lumbini. As early as 1500 years ago, Chinese monk Faxian travelled through Xinjiang and India for the pilgrimage to Lumbini and he was the first recorded person to visit Nepal. Another famous monk Xuanzang came to Lumbini for reverence in 633.
Mayadevi Temple: Mayadevi is married to Uddhodana of Kapilavastu in North India. According to legends, on January 15th (in Nepalese calendar) in 633 BC, she gave birth to Gautama Siddartha, the founder of Buddhism under a shorea in Lumbini garden. To the north of the temple stands the Pillars of Ashoka, built during King Ashoka's visit to Lumbini in 249 BC. The inscriptions on the pillar have proved that Lumbini is the birthplace of Buddha.
Swayambhunath: It is the oldest Buddhist shrine in Asia. Sakymuni, Bodhisattva Manjusri and Padmasambhava all visited Swayambhunath and Vipasyin used to plant lotus here. In 1234, Swayambhunath became the Buddhist center in Nepal. North to the temple is a Mayahana monastery built in 1950s, with a seven-meter high golden statue of Sakyamuni in the main structure. Southnorth to the temple are Hariti Temple with golden roof and two-tiered eaves and a Bhutanese style Lama temple built in the 18th century. Inside the temple, five golden statues sits in the north, south, east, west and middle. Two towers to the east of the temple are Anatoshpur Temple and Puratapur Temple.
Boudhanath: The biggest stupa in Nepal, it houses the sacred remains of Sakyamuni. With the perimeter of 5000 meters and the height of 36 meters, it has been the Tibetan Buddhist center in Nepal and enjoys a history of 1200 years. Monks in Tibetan Buddhist monasteries around the Boudha are mainly of Tibetan origin.
It is the largest multi-tiered hemisphere structure in the world. Its “Chatera” style is rarely seen in Buddhist countries and it is referred to as The Four Elements in Buddhism. The stupa houses the sacred remains of Maha Kassapa, disciple of Sakyamuni. The small building besides Boudhanath worships Ganesha, the god of wisdom. Around the stupa stand five Tibetan monasteries, a two-storied red Nyingma temple and a yellow Lama temple.

Tibetan

Tibetan Buddhism in China

With the average elevation of 4900m and nicknamed “roof of the world” or “land of snow”, Tibet is an area between the Himalaya and Kunlun Mountains. Technically, Tibet usually has two connotations. First it refers to the administrative term of “Tibet Autonomous Region” in China, and secondly it might refer to the geographic and cultural term of “ethic Tibet area”, which in addition to Tibet Autonomous Region, also included parts of Qinghai, Sichuan and Yunan of China. According to recent census, there are about 2.5 million ethnic Tibetans in TAR. The Tibetan language is generally considered to be a Tibeto-Burman language of the Sino-Tibetan language family. 

Tibetan Buddhism, form of Buddhism prevailing in the Tibet region of China, Bhutan, the state of Sikkim in India, Mongolia, and parts of Siberia and southwest China. It has sometimes been called Lamaism, from the name of the Tibetan monks, the lamas (superior ones). The religion is derived from the Indian Mahayana form of Buddhism, but much of its ritual is based on the esoteric mysticism of Tantra and on the ancient shamanism and animism of Bon, an older Tibetan religion. It is also called Tantrayana (tantra vehicle) or Vajrayana (vehicle of the thunderbolt). 

The most dedicated Tibetan Buddhists seek nirvana, but for the common people the religion retains shamanistic elements. The worship also includes reciting prayers and intoning hymns, often to the sound of great horns and drums. A protective formula of esoteric significance, Om mani padme hum (Om, the jewel in the lotus), is repeated; it is inscribed on rocks and walls, tallied on prayer wheels, and displayed on banners and streamers. In addition to a large pantheon of spirits, demons, and genii, many Buddhas and bodhisattvas (future Buddhas) are worshiped along with their ferocious consorts, or Taras. The monastic orders include abbots, ordained religious mendicants, novices (candidates), and neophytes (children on probation). The standing of nuns is inferior. 

Certain Buddhist scriptures arrived in southern Tibet from India as early as 173 AD during the reign of Thothori Nyantsen, the 28th king of Tibet. During the third century the scriptures were disseminated to northern Tibet (which was not part of the same kingdom at the time). The influence of Buddhism was not great, however, and the form was certainly not tantric, as the earliest tantric scripture texts (tantras) had only just then begun to be codified in India. 

Buddhism was very late arriving in Tibet compared with surrounding countries. It had circled around Tibet, passing through the Gandhara region in western Pakistan, along the Silk Road, and then to China, where it was introduced nearly 800 years before it was introduced in Tibet. Given that Tibet was surrounded by Buddhist countries, it is naturally interesting to ask how it finally was transmitted into the area. 

In general, the history of Tibet begins with King Songtsen Gampo, although there were 27 kings before him. Songtsen Gampo (born ca. 609-613, died 650) is the great king who expanded Tibet’s power and credited to invite Buddhism into Tibet. 
The Bon religion, the primitive religion of the ancient Tibetans, flourished before the introduction of Buddhism. Its priests were powerful both militarily and economically, wielding control even over the nobility. In the 7th century, Songtsen Gampo unified the Tibetan Plateau and established the Tubo Kingdom. Defying the Bon priests, he introduced Buddhism into Tibet. He married Princess Bhributi from Nepal, who brought a life-sized statue of Sakyamuni at the age of eight, and then married Princess Wencheng of the Tang Dynasty (618-907), who brought a life-sized statue of Sakyamuni at the age of 12, as well as 360 volumes of Buddhist sutras as her dowry. From then on, the civilization of the Central Plains of China started to flow into Tibet. Songtsen Gampo constructed the Jokhang and Ramqe monasteries in the capital, Lhasa. He also sent his minister Thomni Sambhota to India to learn Sanskrit. From this mission, the Tibetan script was devised as Tibet had previously no written script of its own.
The following 100 years saw incessant conflicts between Buddhism and Bon. The latter half of the 8th century saw the construction of the Samye Monastery, the first large-scale Buddhist monastery in Tibet. By the early 9th century, more monasteries were constructed, and the influence of Buddhism in Tibet reached its zenith.
Despite the indigenous traditions, Buddhism did not become widespread in Tibet until the time of Khri Srong lde brtsan. Indeed in the earlier treaties between Tibet and China, the Tibetan parties refused to participate in Buddhist ceremonies. Animal sacrifice was used to seal the treaties even at the treaty of 812, which otherwise was performed with Buddhist ceremonies. 

Later on, another Dharma King, Trisong Deutsen reinforced the spread of Buddhism in Tibet by inviting the great adepts Shankarakshita and Padmasambhava to Tibet. The translation of Buddha’s teachings into Tibetan was given great importance and as many as one hundred and eight Indian scholars were engaged in this work, along with the establishment of monasteries throughout Tibet. 

The most important event in Tibetan Buddhist history was the arrival of the great tantric mystic Padmasambhava in Tibet in 774 at the invitation of King Trisong Detsen. It was Padmasambhava (more commonly known in the region as Guru Rinpoche) who merged tantric Buddhism with the local Bon religion to form what we now recognize as Tibetan Buddhism. In addition to writing a number of important scriptures (some of which he hid for future tertons to find), Padmasambhava established the Nyingma school from which all schools of Tibetan Buddhism are derived. 
Three generations later, King Tri Ralpachen ordered that every monk should be supported by seven households. At that time, thousands of temples were constructed and many more Indian masters such as Jinamitra, Surendrabodhi and Danashila were invited to revise and standardize the earlier translations. 
However, internal strife ripped apart the royal house, and in the five years (838-842) of the reign of King Darma, the Bon religion revived; during the following 100 years, Tibetan Buddhism became almost extinct. By the end of the 10th century, Buddhism had become popular again, but it was divided into many sects, reflecting political loyalties. The leading sects included the Nyingma Sect (Red Sect), Sagya Sect (Flower Sect), Kagdams Sect, Kabrgyud Sect (White Sect), and Gelug Sect (Yellow Sect). Historians classify the period from the reign of Songtsen Gampo to that of Darma as the “Early Period of Buddhism, and the period of the renaissance of Buddhism and the emergence of the sects the “Later Period of Buddhism”. 

Many monasteries were constructed in Tibet during the Early Period of Buddhism. Besides the famous Jokhang, Ramqe and Samyai monasteries, the Potala Palace was built in that period too. During the 200 years, Tibet absorbed the culture and handicraft skills of the Han people. At the same time, a large number of Buddhist scriptures in Sanskrit, as well works on monastic architecture and other skills were translated into Tibetan. One can easily identify Han and Indian architectural influences on the monasteries in Tibet. However, few of the monasteries founded in the Early Period of Buddhism remain, apart from ruins. 

Because of persecution from King Darma, three great holders of the lineage of Shankarakshita managed to escape to the northernmost region of Tibet, where with the assistance of two Chinese monks they gave full ordination ceremony which marked the revival of Tibetan monasticism. Others arrived from western Tibet and the community multiplied, with masters later returning to central Tibet to revive Buddhism there. 

In eastern Tibet, another revival was occurring due to the efforts of the then King, Yeshe ‘O. He, like many of his predecessors sent out many young Tibetans, this time to Kashmir, to study and retrieve the Buddhist doctrine. Two such delegates were the great translator Rinchen Zangpo (958-1055) and Legden Sherab who returned to Tibet steeped in Dharma and spread the doctrine through translations, teachings and the establishment of monasteries. 

In 1042 a reformer, Atisa (982–1054), a monk from India, arrived in Tibet, unified the priesthood, improved the moral tone by enforcing monastic rules, and tried to eliminate any vestiges of Bon ritual from the religion. He was the founder of the Kadampa sect. Another sect, the Kargyupa, was founded by the translator Marpa (1012–97) and his famous disciple Milarepa. 

Atisha was a great master of the Buddhist teachings and an Indian prince in the region of Bengal. For many years he studied with the greatest masters of India and himself became a great scholar. King Yeshe ‘O was told of Atisha by Rinchen Zangpo and the other Tibetan masters who had returned from their studies in India and developed an unshakeable faith that Atisha would most benefit Tibet. He sent Gyatsoen Sengye and eight others to India to invite Atisha to Tibet. 

After a long journey they reached Vikramashila Monastery in India and met with Atisha. He thoroughly investigated whether it would be beneficial for the Buddhist doctrine and Tibetan people if he were to accept the offer. Checking with his meditation deities Avalokiteshvara and Tara, Atisha found that it would be of great benefit to go to Tibet, but would shorten his life span by almost twenty years. Ignoring this, he decided to go to Tibet for the benefit of the people there. 

After arrival, upon King Jangchub ‘O’s request, Atisha wrote the “Lamp on the Path to Enlightenment” which in three volumes elucidates all of the meaning of the Sutras and Tantras and set the pattern for all the graded path “Lam-Rim” texts found in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition to this day. 

The Lam-Rim consolidates all of the 84,000 bundles of the Buddha’s teachings into one systematic and easy-to-follow path. Amongst Atisha’s many disciples was Dromtonpa who later consolidated Atisha’s teachings and founded the Kadampa tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. This tradition evolved into the Gelug School. 
In the 13th century, Kublai Khan, after his conversion, bestowed temporal rule upon the abbots of the Sakya monastery (and leaders of the Sakyapa sect), who subsequently ruled Tibet from c.1270 to 1340. The lama Tsong khapa, a great reformer, subsequently reorganized the orders, strengthened monastic discipline, introduced a rigid rule of celibacy, and prescribed rigorous routines for meetings, confessions, and retreats. This reform movement called itself the Gelukpa (virtuous) sect and is generally known as the Yellow Hat sect.
Tsong Khapa wrote extensive texts on both Sutra and Tantra, including three quintessential texts which expound the Lam-Rim in short, medium and great versions. He also summarized the Lam Rim in a famous text known as “Three Principal Aspects of the Path” which was revealed to him by Manjushri on the roof of the Lhasa Cathedral. 

During this period, Tibet’s contact with the Indian Buddhist tradition was restored, and the influence of different masters led to a diversity of teaching lineages. Gradually four traditions arose. These were the three new traditions of the Sakya, Kagyu and Gelug. The other Tibetan Buddhist tradition, the old school or Nyingma, stems from the earlier teachings of Guru Padmasambhava. By the turn of the sixteenth century, the power and influence of the Gelug tradition had grown enormously and the lineage of the Dalai Lama, the undisputed spiritual leader of Tibet has strengthened Buddhism’s continued role in the hearts of the Tibetan people to this day. 

Great changes took place in the monasteries in Tibet in the Later Period of Buddhism in both their architectural styles and their social functions. During this period, feudal serf-owners were usually the biggest benefactors or lamas of the monasteries, leading to a fusion of politics and religion. In the mid 13th century, religious leaders appointed by the Central Government administered local affairs. In the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties, the policy of “integration of state and religion” in Tibet continued. For these several centuries, the local religious leader served as the ruler of his area, integrating politics, military affairs, economy and religion, leading to changes in the structures and functions of monasteries in Tibet. In the Early Period of Buddhism, temples and monasteries were constructed mainly in the plains, while in the Later Period of Buddhism, they were built at the feet of mountains. In addition, they contained residential areas, offices and military facilities, including defensive walls and watchtowers. This indicated that the monasteries were becoming seats of temporal as well as spiritual power. 

There are many ranks to the title Living Buddha. For instance, the highest Living Buddhas of the Celug Sect are the Dalai and Panchen lamas. The Dalai Lama is supposed to be the embodiment of Avalokitesvara (the Goddess of Mercy), and the Panchen Lama is said to be the embodiment of the Buddha of Infinite Life. The name Dalai Lama originated in 1579. “Dalai,” a Mongolian word, means “Sea.” While “Lama,” a Tibetan word, means “Master.” After Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty conferred the title Dalai Lama in 1653, the title became a special term for Dalai’s side. The title Panchen was first used in the year 1645. “Pan” is an abbreviation of the Sanskrit word “pandit,” meaning “scholar,” while “chen,” a Tibetan word, means “big.” The combination of the two words means “master.” In the year 1713, Emperor Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty conferred the title “Panchen Erdeni.” “Erdeni” means “treasure” in Sanskrit. Under these two equal-ranking Living Buddhas, the hierarchy includes the Pro-consul Living Buddha who serves as the agent of the Dalai and Panchen lamas in handling local Buddhist affairs, the Living Buddha who is in charge of the major monasteries, the Master of Meditation, who represents the Dalai and Panchen lamas in capital Beijing, the teacher of classics of the Dalai and Panchen lamas, the Living Buddha who is head of the Buddhist Institute, and abbots of medium-sized monasteries. Living Buddhas have their own “palaces.” The largest palace is the Potala Palace in Lhasa, where the Dalai Lama lives. In the past, the monastery expenses and funds for the support of the monks mainly came from begging for alms, soliciting contributions, chanting scriptures, donations, business, and practicing usury. In addition, the monasteries owned a large amount of private property, including serfs and slaves. The Buddhist scriptures in the Tibetan language are collected in the Rudduist Caiion, compiled in the second half of the 14th century. Its 4,569 volumes are divided into the Kagyur (Buddhist Teachings) and the Yangyurd (explanation of Buddhist Sutras and commandments). Printing houses specializing in the printing of the Tibetan Buddhist scriptures and various other types of books and records were set up, with the largest one in the Potala Palace and the one in the Zhaxi Lhunbo Monastery. 

The succession to grand lama, either Dalai or Panchen, depends on direct reincarnation. Upon the death of either, his spirit is believed to pass into the body of some infant just born. An exacting series of tests and divinations determine the proper boy, who is then carefully trained for his great responsibility. The formal installation ceremonies of Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama have been traditionally conducted by Chinese central government ever since their beginning. 

The 14th Dalai Lama was installed in 1940 and the 10th Panchen Lama in 1944. In 1959, following the Tibetan revolt, the Dalai Lama went exile into India, and the Chinese installed the Panchen Lama (died in 1989) in his place as ruler. Since the 1980s there has been greater freedom of religious practice in Tibet.  
Tibetan Buddhism may be distinguished from other schools of Tantric Buddhism by a number of unique traits including:

• Understanding that a continuity of consciousness (identity) and potential to display beneficial qualities can be recognized so that high lamas are returned to their previous status (known as tulkus). Returning to be trained in the teachings through rebirth such as the Dalai and Panchen Lamas. 

• A practice wherein lost or hidden ancient scriptures (termas) are recovered by individuals who are usually spiritual masters. 

• Belief that a Buddha can manifest in human form, such as in the person of Padmasambhava, the saint who brought Tibetan Buddhism to the Himalayas. 

In common with other Tantric schools (primarily Shingon Buddhism in Japan), Tibetan Buddhism is esoteric and tantric. It requires an empowerment (dbang) for practice and emphasizes the tantric methods of transformation as the path. It is mainly in Tibetan Buddhism that Buddhist Tantra has been transmitted to our time. 

In common with Mahayana schools, Tibetan Buddhism teaches a belief in a Pantheon of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and Dharmapala, also known as Dharma protectors. Bodhisattvas are enlightened beings who themselves are able to escape the cycle of death and rebirth but compassionately choose to remain here in this world to assist others in reaching nirvana or Buddhahood. Dharma protectors are mythic and often fearsome figures incorporated into Tibetan Buddhism from various sources including Hinduism and the Bön religion. They are pledged to protecting and upholding the Dharma. A town or district may have its own Dharma protector with its own local mythology. This pantheon is variously interpreted as representations of functions of the psyche, reminiscent of Jungian dream theory, or taken literally by, for instance, Tibetan peasants. 

Tantric practitioners make use of special rituals and objects. Meditation is an important function which may be aided by the use of certain hand gestures (mudras) and chanted mantras (such as the famous mantra of Chenrezig: “om mani padme hum”). A number of meditation techniques are employed by different traditions, including mahamudra, dzogchen, and in the Kagyu school the Six yogas of Naropa. Qualified practitioners may also study or construct special cosmic diagrams known as mandalas which assist in inner spiritual development. A lama may make use of a dorje, a small five- or nine-pronged dumbbell-like object representing a diamond-strong scepter which represents method or compassion, along with a handbell known as a drilbu which represents wisdom. A ritual dagger or phurpa is symbolically used to kill demons, thus releasing them to a better rebirth. 

The cultivation of moral conduct in Tibetan Buddhism is divided into two forms – the Open School and the Secret School. The Secret School is the highest period of learning and the various sects of Tibetan Buddhism have long been split on which to emphasize. Tsongkhapa, founder of the Gelug Sect, preached a fusion of the two. 

However, the systems of learning of different sects are almost the same. If a lama wants to enter a monastery to study the scriptures, he must first study in the preparatory class of the Open School and then enter the formal class in different grades. If he finishes studying all the scriptures, he is qualified to participate in the examination for the title of Gebshes (the Buddhist equivalent of doctor of divinity). One may obtain different Gebshes titles by passing different examinations. After obtaining a Gebshes title, one may enter the Secret School, where, after choosing a master, one passes through a ceremony named “vessel consecration.” Usually, the master pours water from a pot or vase onto the head of the disciple, and then offers him wine from a bowl made of a skull to warn him to clear his mind of all evil thoughts. After this ceremony, the master starts to teach the disciple the scriptures. The disciple will undergo the ceremony of “vessel consecration” every time he moves to a higher level of the Secret School. Students receive instruction four times a day, sitting on a seat paved with sharp pebbles until he obtains the title of Living Buddha. 

Non-initiates in Tibetan Buddhism may gain merit by performing rituals such as food and flower offerings, water offerings (performed with a set of bowls), religious pilgrimages, or chanting prayers (also prayer wheels and prayer flags). They may also light butter lamps at the local temple or fund monks to do so on their behalf. 

Villagers may also gain blessings by observing or participating in cham dances. Energetic dancers wearing masks and richly ornamented costumes perform each sacred dance while accompanied by monks playing traditional Tibetan musical instruments. The dances offer moral instruction such as non-harm to sentient beings and are said to bring merit to all who observe them. In Bhutan the dances are performed during an annual religious festival known as Tsechu, which is held in each district. At certain festivals a large painting known as a thongdrol is also briefly unfurled — the mere glimpsing of the thongdrol is believed to carry such merit as to free the observer from all present sin. Cham dances are prohibited in Tibet by the PRC government.

Tibetan Buddhism has four main traditions (the suffix pa is comparable to “er” in English):
• Nyingma(pa), The Ancient Ones, the oldest and original order founded by Padmasambhava himself. 

• Kagyu(pa), Oral Lineage, has one major sub-sect and one minor sub-sect. The first, the Dagpo Kagyu, encompasses those Kagyu schools that trace back to Gampopa. In turn, the Dagpo 

Kagyu consists of four major sub-sects: the Karma Kagyu, headed by the Karmapa, the Tsalpa Kagyu, the Barom Kagyu, and Pagtru Kagyu; as well as eight minor sub-sects, all of which trace their root to Pagtru Kagyu. Among the eight sub-sects the most notable are the Drikung Kagyu and the Drukpa Kagyu. The once-obscure Shangpa Kagyu, which was famously represented by the 20th century teacher Kalu Rinpoche, traces its history back to the Indian master Niguma, sister of Kagyu lineage holder Naropa. 

• Sakya(pa), Grey Earth, headed by the Sakya Trizin, founded by Khon Konchog Gyalpo, a disciple of the great translator Drokmi Lotsawa. Sakya Pandita (1182–1251) was the great grand-son of Khon Konchog Gyalpo. 
• Geluk(pa), Way of Virtue, also known as Yellow Hats, whose spiritual head is the Ganden Tripa and whose temporal head is the Dalai Lama, who was ruler of Tibet from the mid-17th to mid-20th centuries. It was founded in the 14th to 15th century by Je Tsongkhapa, based on the foundations of the Kadampa tradition. 

Besides the above main schools, there are a number of minor ones like Jonang, Zhije, Bodong and Buton. The Jonangpa were suppressed by the rival Gelukpa in the 1600s and were once thought extinct, but are now known to survive in Eastern Tibet. 

Tibetan Buddhists divide Buddhist philosophy as transmitted from India into four main streams of philosophical tenets: 
Two belong to the older Hinayana: Vaibhasika (Tib. bye-brag smra-ba), and Sautrantika (Tib. mdo-sde-pa). The other two are Mahayana (Skt. Greater Vehicle) (Tib. theg-chen): Yogacara, also called Cittamatra (Tib. sems-tsam-pa), Mind-Only, and Madhyamaka (Tib. dbu-ma-pa). 
It is not clear, if these four streams ever actually existed as distinct traditions in India or if this classification was introduced by Tibetan Scholars only after the transmission to Tibet. 
The tenet system is used in the monasteries and colleges to teach Buddhist philosophy in a systematic way. Therein the four schools can be seen as a gradual path from a rather easy to grasp, “realistic” philosophical point of view to more and more complex and more subtle views on the ultimate nature of reality, that is on emptiness and dependent arising, culminating in the philosophy of the Madhyamikas, which is widely believed to present the most sophisticated point of view. 
Although there were many householder-yogis in Tibet, monasticism was the foundation of Buddhism in Tibet. It’s estimated that as much as 25% of the population of Tibet was monastic from the 16th century through mid-20th century, when there were thousands of monasteries in Tibet. Many monasteries were ransacked and destroyed in the following two or three decades, but most of the major ones have been at least partially reestablished under the more than 200-million yuan fund from Chinese central government.
Monasteries in Tibet harmonize well with the natural scenery, symbolizing the impact of religion on the local people. Monasteries generally adhere to one particular school. Some of the major centers in each tradition are as follows: 

Gelug: The three most important centers of the Gelugpa lineage are Sera, Drepung and Ganden Monasteries. Drepung Monastery was the home monastery of H.H. the Dalai Lama. Jokhang Monastery has remained a major pilgrimage site in Lhasa. Ganden Monastery was the seat of the Ganden Tripa. Sera Monastery is the largest monastery in Tibet, containing numerous colleges. Tashi Lhunpo Monastery is the seat of the Panchen Lama. 

Kagyu: Many Kagyu monasteries are in Kham, eastern Tibet. Tsurphu, one of the most important, is in central Tibet, as is Ralung. Palpung Monastery is the seat of the Tai Situpa and Jamgon Kongtrul. Ralung Monastery is the seat of the Gyalwang Drukpa. Surmang Monastery is the seat of the Trungpa tülkus. Tsurphu Monastery is the seat of H.H. the Gyalwa Karmapa. 
Nyingma: The Nyingma lineage is said to have “six mother monasteries,” although the composition of the six has changed over time: Dorje Drak, Dzogchen, Kathok, Mindroling, Palyul, Shechen. Also of note is Samye, the first monastery in Tibet, established by Padmasambhava and Shantarakshita. 
Sakya: Sakya Monastery is the seat of H.H. the Sakya Trizin. 
Today, Tibetan Buddhism is adhered to widely in the Tibetan Plateau, Bhutan, Mongolia, Kalmykia (the Russian north Caucasus), Siberia (central Russia), and the Russian Far East. Today, Tibetan Buddhism has gained adherents in the West and throughout the world; there are estimated to be thousands of practitioners in Europe and the Americas. 

Bhutan

Bhutan

In Bhutan, the state religion is the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism (also known as Lamaism). Religion enjoys wide popularity among Bhutanese people. Almost everyone is a religious follower and many households set up the shrine to serve their gods. According to the statistics in 2000, there are 540 thousand Buddhists, 5000 Lamaists, 2000 ancient Buddhist temples and 1000 pagodas in Bhutan.

The Kagyu school, the largest religion in Bhutan, is part of Tibetan Buddhism. Its introduction into Bhutan dates back to the middle of 7th century. In 640, The Tibetan Emperor Songstan Gampo ordered the construction of the Jampa Lhakhang at the Bumthang Valley in Central Bhutan with a purpose to spread Buddhism. In 649, he built the Kyerchu Lhakhang in the Paro Valley in West Bhutan. The year 747 witnessed Indian Buddhism saint Padmasambhava’s two visits to Bhutan on invitation for preaching the religion. He is regarded as “Guru Rinpoche” (master and scholar) and “the second Tathagata” by Bhutanese Buddhists and his preaching has stimulated the development of Buddhism in Bhutan. By the end of the 12th century, the Nyingma school and the Kagyu school, two main sects of Lamaism were introduced into Bhutan. In 1616, the Nyingma lama Ngawang Namgyal came to Bhutan conquered all other religious sects. After winning the reign, he became the first Shabdrung (religious leader and king). By referring to the management system of Tibetan Buddhism, Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal set up religious management and hierarchy to rule the country and he became the religious and political authority in Bhutan. After integrating with the religions of primitive tribes, the religion gradually evolved into Bhutanese Lamaism with distinctive local features. Modern Bhutanese people mainly believe in the Nyingma and the Kagyu. As they are introduced from Tibet, Bhutan Buddhists worship Tibet as the shrine. Every year, they go the Tibet to worship their gods.

Lama officials in Bhutan include Je Khenpo, Lopon, abbot of the Central Monastic Body, abbot of district monastic bodies and so on. Je Khenpo, also known as dharma, is only inperior to the king. He is in charge of nationwide religious affairs and administrative decision-making. After Je Khenpo’s Parinirvana in 1917, his successor is chosen by election instead of reincarnation. The names of four highest-ranking Lopons in the Central Monastic Body are written on the lot and put in the holy urn. The chosen Lopon became the new Je Khenpo. In 1952, the election was abolished and the highest-ranking Lopon in the Central Monastic Body automatically becomes the next Je Khenpo. Lopon, inferior only to Je Khenpo, assists him in the management of national religious affairs. Dorji Lopon usually holds a concurrent position of Abbot of the Central Monastic Body, mainly responsible for major activities of the Central Monastic Body as well as administrative and religious affairs of district monastic bodies. Abbot of district monasteries, also known as Wengza, is in charge of the monastery’s discipline and religious activities. He is appointed by Je Khenpo, with Lopongucho as his assistant.

Lamas, the main body of Bhutan Buddhism, have a big age difference. Some have reached their sixties, some are twenty-year-old teenagers and some are even children. In the past, some young people followed Buddhism in the hope to become the upper class but more were sent into the monastery to control the population. Recently, young people join the religion spontaneously, hoping to enter the upper class and enjoy a brighter future. 

Punakha Dzong: Also known as Punakha Castle, it is the most famous Buddhist shrine in Bhutan. It is located at the confluence of the Pho Chhu and Mo Chhu rivers and it is 1463 meters above sea level. It was built by Shabdrung in 1637. The central tower is a six-storied, square structure with the length of 183 meters and the width of 7 meters. The Dzong houses the sacred relics of Bhutanese Buddhism, including scripts, catalogues of religious leaders, religious paintings and portraits. The magnificent tower houses the sacred remains of Shabdrung in ancient Bhutan, embalmed with spice. Only Shabdrung and senior lamas can enter the room with the sacred remains. Punakha Dzong used to be the place where the Bhutan King lived and accepted the audience and it is now the winter palace of Je Khenpo. From October 1st to April 1st next year (in Bhutanese calendar), Je Khenpo and lamas of the Central Monastic Body move from Tashichho Dzong (Summer Palace) in Thimphu to Punakha Dzong for the winter.

Tashichho Dzong: Also known as Tashichho Castle, it is 2500 meters above sea level. It was built in the 13th century by Phajo Dugon Shipgo, the Father of Religion in Bhutan. In 1641, Shabdrung expanded the Dzong but most of the structure was destroyed by fires and earthquakes later. In 1961, Shabdrung  Jigme Dorji Wangchuck ordered a major renovation of the Dzong. The Dzong is a seven-storied, square stone structure, with each story of 4.5 meters to 6 meters. The slanting fir roof is supported by wooden planks and decorated with wide eaves. Outside the structure is a long veranda, supported by an array of columns. The periphery wall is 9 meters high, with the base slightly slanting inwards. The blue wall connects to a row of balconies, below which are small windows. The south and east entrances are linked to stairs and the two gates are reinforced by metal handles. The central building in the Dzong is the summer palace of Je Khenpo. From March 30th to September 30th (in Bhutanese calendar) every year, Je Khenpo and lamas of the Central Monastic Body move back to Tashichho Dzong from Punakha Dzong for the summer.

Russian

Russia

Buddhism was incorporated into Russia as early as the late 15th century, when Russian explorers traveled to and settled in Siberia and today’s Russian Far East. Mongolian and Tibetan lamas first appeared on the eastern shores of Lake Baikal in the middle of the 17th century and quickly spread Buddhism in the area. Later in that century Buddhism emerged as the dominant religion in Tuva. The Kalmyks who migrated from China to the lower reaches of the Volga River in the second half of the 17th century also professed Buddhism. Tzarist authorities were fairly tolerant with respect to Buddhists. 

Later, religious centers appeared in other areas of Buryatiya. Soon most Buryats living east of Lake Baikal were converted to Buddhism. In 1764, Damba Dorzhi Zayayev became head of the entire Buddhist clergy with the title Bandido Khambo Lama. 

In the late sixteenth century the Kalmyks were converted to Buddhism by Mongolian lamas in Dzungaria (China). In the seventeenth century, they moved to the lower reaches of the Volga River, retaining their religion. At that time the Kalmyks gained access to the first works of Buddhist literature translated from the Tibetan language.  

The main form of Buddhism in Russia is the Gelukpa school of Tibetan Buddhism. Although Tibetan Buddhism is most often associated with the people of Tibet, in the north the school spread into southwestern and northern China, Mongolia, and finally Russia. In the south, it took hold in Bhutan and parts of northern India and Nepal. 

Afterwards, it began to spread into the geographically and culturally adjacent Russian constituent regions known today as: Amur Oblast, Buryatia, Chita Oblast, Tuva Republic, and Khabarovsk Krai. There is also Kalmykia, another constituent republic of Russia that is in fact the only Buddhist region in Europe, perhaps paradoxically located to the north of the Caucasus. Buddhism has been in Russia for four centuries. 

In the second half of the 17th century Buryats were incorporated into Russia. Beginning from 1727 when the treaty determining the borders between Russia and Manchu-Chinese empires was signed, the Buryats started the official development within the Russian state. In Czarist Russia, where Orthodoxy was the predominant state religion, Buddhists were subjected to certain restrictions. Buddhist monks (lamas) were made dependent on the local police and were subordinated to the chief provincial board. The regulations for the Lamaist clergy, introduced in 1853, established the almost despotic reign of officials under the czar. The latter made the most important assignments concerning even the clerical posts; in official documents the Buddhists were called “the followers of the alien belief” and the religious problems of the Buddhist were the concern of a special department for foreign religions. Nevertheless, Buddhism began spreading among the Buryats in the 17th century and became an essential and significant element of social, spiritual and material life of most Buryat ethnic groups, and has played a great role in their political and spiritual consolidation. This process of consolidation was stimulated by the formation of a centralized system of the Buryat Buddhist religious administrative structure. In the first half of the 20th century, Stalinist secret police agents tried to oppress all religious groups, leading to a decline in Buddhism.

Tibetan Buddhism is primarily practiced by the indigenous peoples in various regions of central and eastern Russia, except for a few Russian converts based mainly in the larger cities such as St. Petersburg or Moscow, where there is greater access to urban Buddhist centers or similar facilities. 

The other major form of Buddhism found in Russia is the more commonly known Mahayana Buddhism, primarily practiced by the Vietnamese or Chinese immigrant communities based mainly in the large cities. There are a few dozen Buddhist university-monasteries throughout Russia, but concentrated in the Russian Far East and Siberia, known in Russian as Datsans. Adherents to Buddhism account for approximately 700,000 in the Russian Federation, about 0.5% of the total population. 

The highest authority for Russian Buddhists is the Central Buddhist Board based in the Ivolginski Datsan in the Buryat, with a permanent office in Moscow for external relations. The congress of clergy and laity convenes once in four years and elects the members of the Board. 

Russian Buddhism has a number of ritual peculiarities. Historically it has been marked by the prevalence of rural lamas living outside datsans because of the nomadic way of life. To some extent, this tradition has survived. In keeping with tradition, six major holidays, khurals, are celebrated annually and are attended by a large number of people who bring various gifts to datsans as well as money and food for lamas. During the khurals prayers are said in honor of the protectors of the faith and for well-being and peace on earth. 

Lamas who live in monasteries observe the Dulva, a traditional moral and ethical code. Depending on the level of ordination, they participate in services and philosophical discussions and perform special religious rites at the people’s request. 

Recently, in addition to Buryats, Kalmyks, and Tuvinians, more and more Russians, Ukrainians, and people from the Baltic republics have been attending Buddhist services. Previously, they all went to pray at the Ivolginsk datsan, but today, with the 1991 reopening of the temple in Leningrad, followers of Buddhism from the European part of the country will travel there, too. 

In Russia, academic Buddhist studies began from the mid-19th century. Shortly afterwards, the Russian Buddhological School had won international prestige, attracting the greatest scholars of the world at that time: L. de La Vallee Poussen, Max Walleser, Sylvan Levi and others. 

At present Buddhism is studied at research centers in Moscow, St. Petersburg, as well as in Ulan-Ude, Elista and Kyzyl. In buddhological studies – mainly pursuing the fields of sinology and ideology – notable achievements have been made. The fact that in Russia, there is a living tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, spread among Buryats, Kalmycks and Tyvanians, greatly contributed to the development of Tibetan and Mongolian studies, and within their frame to the buddhological studies. 

Buddhism in Buryatia, a region in Central Asia and Southern Siberia, was the northernmost point of the spread of Buddhism. The Buryats were, and are still the largest Buddhist population in Russia. The Buryats, Kalmycks and the Tyvanians are the three Buddhist nationalities in Russia, historically belonging to the common Mongolian spiritual realm and to the Tibetan and Mongolian cultural and religious tradition of the great Central Asian civilization. Tibetan religious and cultural influence has been playing, up to now, an important role in the culture and history of these peoples

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In the beginning, Buddhist monasteries were the centers, not only of culture and learning, but of actual moral and ethical regulators of everyday life of Buryat families. Buddhism stimulated the formation of the nation’s intellectual potential. There appeared different monastic educational faculties with many learned monks and scholars. By the beginning of the 20th century, Buddhism had become quite strong and this caused the anxiety on the part of the Christian church. 

In order to adapt the Buddhist teaching and church to the rapidly developing and changing world, Agvan Dorjiev and some prominent Buryat scholars initiated a modernization movement among Buddhist clergy and intellectuals, proclaiming the necessity of combining the Buddhist philosophy with the best achievements of Western culture and civilization. The movement has gained a wide scope in Buryatia. By 1935 there were about 45 or 46 Buddhist temples and monasteries in Buryatia. 

Kalmykia

The Kalmyks are the only inhabitants of Europe of Mongolian origin, and the only ones whose national religion is Buddhism. They live in the Republic of Kalmykia, a federal subject of the Russian Federation. It has borders with the Republic of Dagestan in the south; the Stavropol Krai in the southwest; the Rostov Oblast and the Volgograd Oblast in the west and the northwest, respectively. Its eastern border is the Astrakhan Oblast. 

The Kalmyks are the descendants of several Oirat tribes that migrated to Europe during the early part of the 17th century. As Tibetan Buddhists, the Kalmyks regard the Dalai Lama as their spiritual leader. The Šajin Lama (Supreme Lama) of the Kalmyks is Erdne Ombadykow, a Philadelphia-born man of Kalmukian origin who was brought up as a Buddhist monk in a Tibetan monastery in India from the age of seven and who was recognized by the Dalai Lama as the reincarnation of the Buddhist saint Telo Rinpoche. Ombdaykow divides his time between living in Colorado and living in Kalmykia. 

Kalmyk political refugees opened the first Buddhist temple in Central Europe, located in Belgrade, Serbia. Their offspring relocated to the United States in late 1951 and early 1952, where they established several Kalmyk Buddhist temples in Monmouth County, New Jersey. Geshe Wangyal, a Kalmyk Buddhist monk, established the Tibetan Buddhist Learning Center and monastery in Washington County, NJ. 

Mongolia

Mongolia is an in-land country between Russia and China, located in North Asia. It is estimated that nearly 50% of its 2.8 million population in 2005 are Buddhists of Tibetan Buddhism. The concept of Mongolia, especially when the religion is referred to, is not limited only to that of a country, but also ethic, cultural, and historical. 

Mongols are an ethnic group that originated in what is now Mongolia, Russia, and China or more specifically on the Central Asian plateau north of the Gobi desert and south of Siberia. They currently number about 10 million and speak the Mongol language. There are approximately 2.7 million Mongols in Mongolia, five million Mongols living in Inner Mongolia, China and one million Mongols in Russia. The major body of the Mongols is the Khalkas. Major ethnic subgroups of Mongolic peoples are: the Khalkhas; the Buryats and the Dorbots of Siberia; the Kalmyks (Oirats) of the Caucasus; and the Mongours (Tu), the Daurs, and the various other Mongolic peoples of Inner Mongolia in China. 
Most modern Mongolians believe they are the descendents of the Huns, believed to be Turkic. The Mongols were originally a confederation of tribes, a group of nomadic people. In the early 13th century Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes and conquered Central Asia, and the word “Mongol” came to mean the entire people. 
Though few in number, Mongols were important in the Eurasian history. Under Genghis Khan, the Mongols created the second largest empire in world history, ruling thirty-five million square kilometers and more than 100 million people at its height. 
His successor, Ögödei, conquered the Jin Dynasty of China in 1234. Kublai Khan established the Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty in China in 1279. The Mongols were confined to their original homeland in the steppes after the 14th century. Later Mongols became part of the Chinese Qing Dynasty. In 1911, Mongolia revolted against Manchu rule with Russian support, forming modern Mongolia. The Mongolian People’s Republic was established in 1924. 
Traditional Mongols worshipped heaven (the “clear blue sky”) and their ancestors, and they followed ancient northern Asian practices of shamanism, in which human intermediaries went into trance and spoke to and for some of the numberless infinities of spirits responsible for human luck or misfortune. 
Early Mongolian contacts with Buddhism are dated to the fourth century, when the activities of Chinese monks among the population of this border area are reported in contemporary Chinese sources. Buddhist influences spread as far as the Yenisei region by the seventh century, as evidenced by Buddhist temple bells with Chinese inscriptions found there. Another factor in the spread of Buddhism into Mongolia was the flourishing of Buddhist communities in the predominantly Uighur oasis states along the Silk Route. Furthermore, the palace that was built by Ogedei Khan (1229-1241) in Karakorum, the Mongol capital, was constructed on the foundations of a former Buddhist temple; some of the murals from this temple have been preserved. Sources for this early Buddhist activity are rather scarce. 
In Mongolia, however, the predominant form of Buddhism is Tibetan. After Mongol rule over China ended in 1368, the practice of Buddhism diminished among the Mongols, deteriorating into mere superstition or giving way once again to the indigenous religious conceptions of the Mongols and to shamanism. It was not until the sixteenth century that a second wave of Buddhist conversion began, brought about by the military expeditions of Altan Khan of the Tumet (1507-1583) into the eastern border districts of Tibet, which resulted in contacts with Lamaist clerics. Within the short period of fifty years, beginning with the visit of the third Dalai Lama to Altan Khan’s newly built residence, Koke Khota, in 1578, practically all of the Mongolian nobility was converted to Buddhism by the missionary work of many devoted Lamaist priests. Altan gave the Tibetan leader the title of Dalai Lama (“Dalai” meaning “ocean”), which his successors still hold. Altan died soon after, but in the next century the Yellow Sect spread throughout Mongolia, aided in part by the efforts of contending Mongol aristocrats to win religious sanction and mass support for their ultimately unsuccessful efforts to unite all Mongols in a single state. Monasteries were built across Mongolia, often sited at the juncture of trade and migration routes or at summer pastures, where large numbers of herders would congregate for shamanistic rituals and sacrifices. Buddhist monks carried out a protracted struggle with the indigenous shamans and succeeded, to some extent, in taking over their functions and fees as healers and diviners, and in pushing the shamans to the religious and cultural fringes of Mongolian culture. 
During the Qing Dynasty in China, particularly during the Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong reign periods, the printing of Buddhist works in Mongolian was furthered by the Manchu emperors as well as by the Mongolian nobility. Donating money for copying scripture, cutting printing blocks, and printing Buddhist works were thought of as meritorious deeds. Works on medicine, philosophy, and history were also published and distributed. The spiritual life of Mongolia became strongly influenced by religious and semi-religious thoughts and ethics. Sponsored by the Kangxi emperor, a revised edition of the Mongolian Bka’’-gyur was printed from 1718 to 1720; translation of the Bstan-’gyur (Tanjur) was begun under the Qianlong emperor in 1741 and was completed in 1749. Copies of the completed edition (in 108 and 223 volumes, respectively, for the Bka’-’gyur and Bstan’-’gyur) were given as imperial gifts to many monasteries throughout Mongolia. 
Buddhism and the Buddhist monks always have played significant political roles in Central and Southeast Asia, and the Buddhist monastery in Mongolia was no exception. Monastery and state supported each other, and the doctrine of reincarnation made it possible for the reincarnations of living buddhas to be discovered conveniently in the families of powerful Mongol nobles. 
By the beginning of the twentieth century, Outer Mongolia had 583 monasteries and temple complexes, which controlled an estimated 20 percent of the country’s wealth. Almost all Mongolian cities have grown up on the sites of monasteries. Yihe Huree, as Ulaanbaatar was then known, was the seat of the preeminent living Buddha of Mongolia (the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, also known as the Bogdo Gegen and later as Bogdo Khan), who ranked third in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, after the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama. Two monasteries there contained approximately 13,000 and 7,000 monks, and the pre-revolutionary Mongol name of the settlement known to outsiders as Urga, Yihe Huree, meaning “big monastery”. 
Over the centuries, the monasteries acquired riches and secular dependents; they gradually increased their wealth and power as those of the Mongol nobility declined. Some nobles donated a portion of their dependent families – people, rather than land, were the foundation of wealth and power in old Mongolia – to the monasteries; some herders dedicated themselves and their families to serve the monasteries either from piety or from the desire to escape the arbitrary exactions of the nobility. In some areas, the monasteries and their living Buddhas (of whom there were a total of 140 in 1924) also were the secular authorities. In the 1920s, there were about 110,000 monks, including children, who made up about one-third of the male population, although many of these lived outside the monasteries and did not observe their vows. About 250,000 people, more than a third of the total population, either lived in territories administered by monasteries and living Buddhas or were hereditary dependents of the monasteries. After 1911, the Buddhist monasteries and monks provided the only political structure available, and the autonomous state thus took the form of a weakly centralized theocracy, headed by the Jebtsundamba khutuktu in Yihe Huree. By the twentieth century, Buddhism had penetrated deeply into Mongolian culture, and the populace willingly supported the lamas and the monasteries. 
When the revolutionaries – determined to modernize their country and to reform its society – took power, they confronted a massive ecclesiastical structure that enrolled a larger part of the population, monopolized education and medical services, administered justice in a large part of the country, and controlled a great deal of the national wealth. The Buddhist monasteries, moreover, had no interest in reforming itself or in modernizing the country. The result was a protracted political struggle that absorbed the energies and attention of the party and its Soviet advisers for nearly twenty years. As late as 1934, the party counted 843 major Buddhist centers, about 3,000 temples of various sizes, and nearly 6,000 associated buildings, which usually were the only fixed structures in a world of felt tents. The annual income of monasteries was 31 million tugriks, while that of the state was 37.5 million tugriks. A party source claimed that, in 1935, monks constituted 48 percent of the adult male population. In a campaign marked by shifts of tactics, alternating between conciliation and persecution, and armed uprisings led by monks and abbots, the Buddhist monastery was removed progressively from public administration, was subjected to confiscatory taxes, was forbidden to teach children, and was prohibited from recruiting new monks or replacing living Buddhas. In 1938, amid official fears that churches and monasteries were likely to cooperate with the Japanese, who were promoting a pan-Mongol puppet state, the remaining monasteries were dissolved, their property was seized, and their monks were secularized. The monastic buildings were taken over to serve as local government offices or schools. 
Since at least the early 1970s, one monastery, the Gandan Monastery, with a community of 100 monks, was open in Ulaanbaatar. It was the country’s sole functioning monastery. A few of the old monasteries survived as museums, and the Gandan Monastery served as a living museum and a tourist attraction. Its monks included a few young men who had undergone a five-year training period, but whose motives and mode of selection were unknown to Western observers. The party apparently thought that Buddhism no longer posed a challenge to its dominance and that – because Buddhism had played so large a part in the country’s history, traditional arts, and culture, total extirpation of knowledge about the religion and its practices would cut modern Mongols off from much of their past, to the detriment of their national identity. A few aged former monks were employed to translate Tibetan-language handbooks on herbs and traditional medicine. Government spokesmen described the monks of the Gandan Monastery as doing useful work. Today the monastery has been reinvigorated as the Gandantegchinlen Khiid Monastery by the post-Communist governments of the country. 
Buddhism furthermore played a role in Mongolia’s foreign policy by linking Mongolia with the communist and the noncommunist states of East and Southeast Asia. Ulaanbaatar was the headquarters of the Asian Buddhist Conference for Peace, which has held conferences for Buddhists from such countries as Japan, Vietnam, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, and Bhutan; published a journal for international circulation; and maintained contacts with such groups as the Christian Peace Conference, the Afro-Asian People’s Solidarity Organization, and the Russian Orthodox Church. The organization, headed by the abbot of then-Gandan Monastery, advanced the foreign policy goals of the Mongolian government, which were in accord with those of the Soviet Union. 
In 1990 all barriers to religion were removed and since then 160 monasteries and nunneries have been re-opened. In northern Mongolia, the revival of the indigenous religious traditions of the Mongols, including owō-worship, the mountain-cult and, of course, shamanism, seem to be predominant. But in the rest of Mongolia, Buddhism has experienced a massive renaissance. “Buddhism” in the Mongolian context denotes Tibetan Buddhism in its Mongolian form. Tibetan Buddhism underwent distinctive changes and adaptations in the Mongolian cultural context, from the late sixteenth century on. In the early twentieth century Mongolia belonged to a Tibetan Buddhist world. Up to 600 monasteries and temples spread over the country, with up to one third of the male population leading a monastic life. In 1990, however, there existed but one functioning Buddhist monastery, Gandantegchinlin in Ulaanbaatar. In 1990 approximately one hundred lamas studied at Gandanthegchinlin, forty of whom were destined to teach in the few functioning monasteries of the former Soviet Union. A traditional Buddhist education, however, was not possible, as it was forbidden to study Buddhist philosophy and dialectics, the core subjects of higher Tibetan Buddhist education. Today nearly 200 monasteries and temples have been restored throughout the country. More than 3,000 monks are registered (the number of nuns is not ascertained) and there is ongoing teaching activity.
The new freedom of religion is observable everywhere in the country. People flock to the monasteries, making circumambulations, giving offering to the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas whose statues are either being restored or built anew. In 1996 a huge statue of the Bodhisattva Nidüger üjegci (Avalokiteshvara) in the Maitreya temple in Ulaanbaatar was installed. The yearly Mayidari festival, first introduced in 1657 at the Erdeni dzuu monastery by the first Jebtsundampa Khutukhtu Zanabazar, was held again at Ulaanbaatar, in May of 2000 at the Gandanthegchinlin monastery. This monastery recently opened new colleges, structuring the monastic institution after the Tibetan Gelugs-pa (Yellow sect) model. In order to also make Buddhist teachings available for smaller monasteries in the countryside, lamas are sent to these establishments. In 1998 the number of monks at the Gandanthegchinlin monastery was over 300 and is still growing. The abbot of the monastery is considered by other clerics to be the head abbot of all of Mongolia’s monastic establishments. 
The revival of Buddhism in Mongolia brought about a strong interest in monastic life, for women as well as men. Whereas in the early 1990s the majority of monks were old, today the young monks outnumber the old ones. It is not only religious devotion that leads to the rapid increase of clerics among the population. Being a monk or nun is considered a job, and the clergy receive a small income. 
The demographic factor, however, causes problems concerning the education of the monks and nuns. Knowledge of the holy scriptures, the liturgy, and the offering of ceremonies and rituals in general, is scarce. Well educated Buddhist teachers are rarely to be found among the Mongolian clergy. Throughout the last seven centuries, Tibet and Mongolia have maintained strong cultural, political, and religious ties, and from the late sixteenth century onward, lamas of the Ge-lugs-pa school of Tibetan Buddhism managed to convert the entire population of Mongolia to Buddhism in less than fifty years. Since the early seventeenth century, Tibet and Mongolia have shared a common religious identity within the broader religious-cultural context of the Asian countries dominated by Mahayana Buddhism. Due to a lack of knowledge of the philosophical and ritual differences of the various schools of Tibetan Buddhism, the monks and nuns often cannot determine with certainty the order of Tibetan Buddhism to which they belong. Since the late sixteenth century the Ge-lugs-pa has been dominant, but some other schools have also been active in Mongolia. 
Mongolian Buddhism, since the beginning of the twentieth century, has been connected in many ways to the international Buddhist world. It is not only Tibetan Buddhist institutions that are providing a knowledge transfer to Mongolia, which has suffered such a severe loss of its traditional Buddhist culture. International Buddhist institutions have also helped establish the necessary financial support to revive the Buddhist traditions. On the other hand, the Mongolian people constantly donate money to restore old monasteries, temples, and stupas, and to establish new ones. Sometimes only a ger, a felt tent, is erected, which serves as the temple where monks and lamas perform religious services. In view of the economic difficulties the country is facing after the breakdown of the Soviet Union, and the transition to a free market economy, it is noteworthy that Mongolians still find the means to finance the building of Buddhist temples and monasteries. Once established, the monasteries depend on the continuous financial support of lay people, as is customary in Buddhist societies throughout Asia. The Mongolian government also financially supports the restoration of Buddhist monuments. 
Considering the fact that the whole article twelve of the Mongolian Constitution deals solely with the emblems of national identity, and that these national emblems, which consist of the State Emblem, the Banner, the Flag, and the Seal, are described in terms that refer both to the traditional religion and to Buddhism, it is obvious that Buddhism is considered of prime importance in the constitution of Mongolian identity. In the meantime of Buddhism being considered an important part of the national heritage of the Mongols, however, stress for importance of Genghis Khan also rises in the revival of a distinct Mongolian culture at the turn of the twenty-first century.